🔊 Important One Liners on Electric Charges 🔊
------------------------------------------------------------------------

▫️ If an object is attracted by another charged body, the first object may be oppositely charged or not charged because we know both an uncharged object and an oppositely charged object are attracted by another charged object.

▫️ If an object is positively charged it loses some of its electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.11*10^-31 kg. So, if a positively charged body loses ‘n’ number of electrons, it mass decrease by the amount n*9.11E^-31kg.

▫️ Though gold is a costly metal it is used in electroscope because of the property malleability. This means very thin and light sheets can be formed from gold simply by hammering or rolling and hence the deflection of the light gold plates increases.

▫️ The divergence of the plates of the Gold-leaf oscilloscope depends only on the presence of a charge, not on the quality of charge i.e. positive or negative. So, if the charge changes from positive to negative and vice versa the degree of divergence of the plates remains the same.

▫️ The same charges repel each other. So, they try to maintain maximum distance from each other and hence they try to remain at the outer surface of an object. If the charge remains on the inner surface or throughout the body, they will repel each other with greater force.

▫️ The human body is a good conductor and hence the charge produced by friction flew through his body to the ground. We can tackle the problem simply by holding the brass rod with the help of some insulated holder.

▫️ If the apparatus is initially in contact with some positively charged body and then comes in contact with another ▫️ charged body and if the divergence increases we can deduce that the second body is also positively charged. If the divergence decreases then the second body must be negatively charged.

▫️ According to electrostatic series, glass is situated above silk. So, if the glass is rubbed with silk, the positive charge on glass and negative charge on silk is produced. Similarly, we can predict what is the nature of charge if we rub two di-electric substances together.

▫️ 1 Coulomb means 3*10^9 Electro Static Unit of charge. Coulomb and ESU are two different units of charge and their conversion formula is necessary. Coulomb is the unit of charge in the SI system and esu is the unit of charge in the CGS system.

▫️ The two spheres are oppositely charged by the same amount. So if they come in contact, both of their charges are neutralized. So they become uncharged and don’t attract or repel each other.

Important Points of NCERT :

🌟 Environmental protection act:- 1986

🌟 Air Act:- 1981(amended in 1987)

🌟 1990:- Delhi ranked 4th out of 41 most polluted cities in the World.

🌟 All buses run on CNG by- 2002

🌟 Water Act:- 1974

🌟 Chipko movement(Garhwal Himalayas):- 1974

🌟 JFM(Joint Forest Management):- the 1980s

🌟 Montreal Protocol (Canada):- 1987 (amended in 1989)

🌟 The Earth Summit:- 1992 (Rio de Janeiro)

🌟 World Summit:- 2002 (Johannesburg S.A)

🌟 IUCN Red List (2004):- 784 species extinct in last 500 years.

🌟 Joint Forest Management (JFM):- 1980's.

🌟 1st recombinant DNA:- 1972.

🌟 1st restriction endonuclease:- 1963.

🌟 1997:-An American company got patent rights on Basmati rice.

🌟 1990:- 4 year old girl got ADA deficiency

✍️Revision Notes on Vectors✍️
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖

Some Basic Results of Vector Calculus:
1) Vectors in the same direction can be added by simply adding their magnitudes. But if the vectors to be added are in opposite directions, then their magnitudes are subtracted and not added.

2) Column vectors can be added by simply adding the values in each row.

3) You can find the magnitude of a vector in three dimensions by using the formula a2 = b2 + c2 + d2, where a is the magnitude of the vector, and b, c, and d are the components in each direction.

4) If l1a + m1b = l2a + m2b then l1 = l2 and m1 = m2

5) Collinear Vectors are also parallel vectors except that they lie on the same line.

6) When two vectors are parallel, the dot product of the vectors is 1 and their cross product is zero.

7)Two collinear vectors are always linearly dependent.

8) Two non-collinear non-zero vectors are always linearly independent

9) Three coplanar vectors are always linearly dependent.

10) Three non-coplanar non-zero vectors are always linearly independent

11) More than 3 vectors are always linearly dependent.

12) Three vectors are linearly dependent if they are coplanar that means any one of them can be represented as a linear combination of other two.

STAY UNMUTED 🙂

𝘾𝙝𝙖𝙥𝙩𝙚𝙧 - 𝙈𝙞𝙘𝙧𝙤𝙗𝙚𝙨 𝙞𝙣 𝙝𝙪𝙢𝙖𝙣 𝙬𝙚𝙡𝙛𝙖𝙧𝙚❤️

1.curd also known as lactobacillus or lactic acid bacteria(LAB) with high nutritional quality by increasing vitamin B12.

2.large holes in Swiss cheese are due to production of a large amount of CO2 by bacteria named 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙥𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙞𝙗𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙪𝙢 𝙨𝙜𝙖𝙧𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙞𝙞.

3.camemcert cheese(soft) - penicillium camemberti

4.Roquefort cheese( semi-hard) -penicillium Roqueforti

5.Baker's yeast- Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

6.'Toddy' prepared from sap of palms by fermentation.

7.yeast fermentation are
a) Beer- produced from hordeum vulgare and alcohal content is 3-6%
b) Wine - from grapes and alcohol amount is 10-20%
c) brands - distillation of wine and alcohol amount is 60-70%
d) Tum prodced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol amount is 40%

8.penicillin was the first antibiotic by 𝘼𝙡𝙚𝙭𝙖𝙣𝙙𝙚𝙧 𝙁𝙡𝙚𝙢𝙞𝙣𝙜.

9. The bottle juice was cleared by 𝙥𝙚𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙣𝙖𝙨𝙚 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙩𝙚𝙖𝙨𝙚.

10. Streptokinase (by Bacterium streptococcus)- clot buster

11.Cyclosporin A ( by fungus trichiderma polysporum) - immunosuppressive agent

12.Statins (by yeast monascus purpureus) - blood cholesterol lowering agent.

13.𝘽𝙞𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙨𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙞𝙙𝙚- those biological agents that are used for control of weeds, insects,pathogens by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa

14. 𝘽𝙖𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙤𝙫𝙞𝙧𝙪𝙨𝙚𝙨 used as biological agents are in the genus nucleopolyhedrovirus.

15. 𝘽𝙞𝙤𝙛𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙡𝙞𝙯𝙚𝙧𝙨- organisms that are enrich the nutrient quality of soil by bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria.

16 .in 𝘽𝙞𝙤(𝙜𝙤𝙗𝙖𝙧) 𝙜𝙖𝙨 - 𝙢𝙚𝙩𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙚(50-70%), 𝘾𝙊2(30-40%), 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙮𝙙𝙧𝙤𝙜𝙚𝙣, 𝙣𝙞𝙩𝙧𝙤𝙜𝙚𝙣, 𝙝𝙮𝙙𝙧𝙤𝙜𝙚𝙣 𝙨𝙪𝙡𝙥𝙝𝙞𝙙𝙚.

NON-CHORDATES ENDED NOW CHORDATES HERE IS
𝘾𝙇𝘼𝙎𝙎 𝘼𝙈𝙋𝙃𝙄𝘽𝙄𝘼:-


The characteristics of the organisms present in class amphibia are as follows:

⚜These can live both on land and in water.

⚜They are ectothermic animals, found in a warm environment.

⚜Their body is divided into head and trunk. The tail may or may not be present.

⚜The skin is smooth and rough without any scales, but with glands that make it moist.

⚜They have no paired fins. Unpaired fins might be present.

⚜They have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.

⚜They respire through the lungs and skin. Gills might be present externally in some adults.

⚜The heart is three chambered.

⚜The kidneys are mesonephric. The excretory material includes ammonia and urea.

⚜They possess ten pairs of cranial nerves.

⚜The lateral line is present during their development.

⚜The sexes are separate and fertilization is usually external. However, in salamanders, the fertilization is internal.

⚜Development is indirect with metamorphosis.

⚜Breeding occurs in water. The copulatory organs are absent in males.

Eg., Frogs, Salamanders

⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜⚜

🔰 Important Facts About Human Body 🔰
=========================

🔸 Largest and strongest Bone in the body:
➖ Femur (thigh bone)

🔸 Smallest Bone in the body
➖ Stapes in ear

🔸 Number of Cells in the body
➖ 75 trillion

🔸 Volume of Blood in the body
➖ 6 litres (in 70 kg body)

🔸 Number of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
➖ In male: 5 to 6 million/cubic mm
➖ In female: 4 to 5 million/cubic mm

🔸 Life span of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
➖ 100 to 120 days

🔸 Life span of White Blood Cell(W.B.C.)
➖ 3-4 days

🔸 Normal White Blood Cell(W.B.C.) count
➖ 5000-10000/cubic mm

🔸 Time taken by R.B.C. to complete one cycle of circulation:
➖ 20 seconds

🔸 Other name of Red Blood Cell (R.B.C.):
➖ Erythrocytes

🔸 Largest White Blood Cells:
➖ Monocytes

🔸 Smallest White Blood Cells:
➖ Lymphocyte

🔸 Who discovered Blood Group:
➖ Karl Landsteiner

🔸 Blood Platelets count:
➖ 150,000 - 400,000 platelets per micro litre

🔸 Haemoglobin (Hb):
➖ In male: 14-15 gm/100 c.c. of blood
➖ In female: 11-14 gm/100 c.c. of blood

🔸 Hb content in body:
➖ 500-700 gm

🔸 pH of Urine:
➖ 6.5-8

🔸 pH of Blood:
➖ 7.36-7.41

🔸 Volume of Semen:
➖ 2-5 ml/ejaculation

🔸 Pulse rate:
➖ 72 per minute

🔸 Thinnest Skin:
➖ Eyelids

🔸 Weight of Heart:
➖ 200-300 gm

〰〰〰〰〰〰〰〰〰〰〰

Male Reproductive System

1. The elastic tissue which connects the cauda epididymis to the scrotal sac is
(a) Caput epididymis
(b) Scrotal ligament
(c) Gubernaculum✅
(d) Tendinous cord

2. By the contraction of the spermatic cord, the testis of man are not taken to the abdominal cavity due to this structure
(a) fat bodies and gubernaculum present over the testis
(b) attachment of testis by gubernaculum to the scrotal sac only✅
(c) narrowness of inguinal canal
(d) both (b) and (c)


3. The seminiferous tubules of the testis are lined by the germinal epithelium consisting of
(a) spermatids
(b) cells of Sertoli✅
(c) spermatogonium
(d) spermatocytes


4. These cells of the testes secrete testosterone
(a) Sertoli cells
(b) cells of germinal epithelium
(c) Cells of Leydig or interstitial cells✅
(d) secondary spermatocytes


5. There is a connective tissue cord extending between the testis and abdominal wall known as
(a) mesenteric cord
(b) gubernaculum
(c) testis cord
(d) spermatic cord✅


6. Which of these is an accessory reproductive gland in male mammals
(a) Inguinal gland
(b) Prostate gland✅
(c) Mushroom-shaped gland
(d) Gastric gland


7. There are some special types of cells present in the seminiferous tubules known as Sertoli cells which are
(a) somatic cells
(b) germinal cells
(c) protective cells✅
(d) reproductive cells


8. Seminiferous tubules develop central lumen after
(a) Old age
(b) Prepuberal time
(c) Birth
(d) Puberty✅


9. Another name for Bulbourethral gland is
(a) Meibomian gland
(b) Prostate gland
(c) Perineal gland
(d) Cowper’s gland✅


10. In man, Cryptorchidism is the condition when
(a) testes do not descent into the scrotum✅
(b) there are two testes in each scrotum
(c) testis degenerates in the scrotum
(d) testis enlarges in the scrotum

♻️Important Notes - Electrochemical Cells♻️


► An electrochemical cell can convert electrical energy to chemical energy and can also convert electrical energy to chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells- Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell.

► Cathodes are usually metal electrodes. It is the electrode where reduction takes place. The cathode is the positive electrode in a galvanic cell and a negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. Electrons move into the cathode.

► A half-cell is half of an electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic), where either oxidation or reduction occurs. At equilibrium, there is no transfer of electrons across the half cells. Therefore, the potential difference between them is nil.

► A salt bridge is a device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (a type of electrochemical cell). Strong electrolytes are generally used to make the salt bridges in electrochemical cells. Since ZnSO4 is not a strong electrolyte, it is not used to make salt bridges.

► Emf of a cell is equal to the maximum potential difference across its electrodes, which occurs when no current is drawn through the cell. It can also be defined as the net voltage between the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.

► Cell potential is an intensive property as it is independent of the amount of material present. Gibbs free energy is defined for an electrochemical cell and is an extensive property as it depends on the quantity of the material.

► Electrode potential is the tendency of an electrode to accept or to lose electrons. Electrode potential depends on the nature of the electrode, temperature of the solution and the concentration of metal ions in the solution. It doesn’t depend on the size of the electrode.

► The salt bridge connects the two half-cell solutions to complete the circuit of the electrochemical cell. The electrolytes of the salt bridge are generally prepared in agar-agar or gelatin so that the electrolytes are kept in a semi-solid phase and do not mix with the half-cell solutions and interfere with the electrochemical reaction.

► A salt bridge is a junction that connects the anodic and cathodic compartments in a cell or electrolytic solution. It maintains electrical neutrality within the internal circuit, preventing the cell from rapidly running its reaction to equilibrium.

► A Voltaic or Galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells are used to convert light energy into electrical energy. An Electrolytic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy. A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity.

► For all spontaneous chemical reactions, the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) is always negative. For a spontaneous reaction in an electrolytic cell, the cell potential (E°cell) should be positive.

► In an electrochemical cell, when an opposing externally potential is applied and increased slowly, the reaction continues to take place. When the external potential is equal to the potential of the cell, the reaction stops. Once the externally applied potential is greater than the potential of the cell, the reaction goes in the opposite direction and the cell behaves like an electrolytic cell.

► Primary cells cannot be used again and again. Since there is no fluid inside, these cells are also known as dry cells. The internal resistance is high and the chemical reaction is irreversible. Their initial cost is cheap.

► A secondary battery (a series of cells) is one which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times. Nickel-cadmium cell, Lead storage cell and Mercury cell are examples of secondary cells. Leclanche cell is an example of a primary cell.

⭕️Algebra - Revision Notes on Permutations⭕️

➖The concept of permutation is used for the arrangement of objects in a specific order i.e. whenever the order is important, permutation is used.

➖The total number of permutations on a set of n objects is given by n! and is denoted as nPn = n!

➖The total number of permutations on a set of n objects taken r at a time is given by nPr = n!/ (n-r)!

➖The number of ways of arranging n objects of which r are the same is given by n!/ r!

➖If we wish to arrange a total of n objects, out of which ‘p’ are of one type, q of second type are alike, and r of a third kind are same, then such a computation is done as n!/p!q!r!

➖Al most all permutation questions involve putting things in order from a line where the order matters. For example ABC is a different permutation to ACB.

➖The number of permutations of n distinct objects when a particular object is not to be considered in the arrangement is given by n-1Pr

➖The number of permutations of n distinct objects when a specific object is to be always included in the arrangement is given by r.n-1Pr-1.

➖If we need to compute the number of permutations of n different objects, out of which r have to be selected and each object has the probability of occurring once, twice or thrice… up to r times in any arrangement is given by (n)r.

➖Circular permutation is used when some arrangement is to be made in the form of a ring or circle.

➖When ‘n’ different or unlike objects are to be arranged in a ring in such a way that the clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are different, then the number of such arrangements is given by (n – 1)!

➖If n persons are to be seated around a round table in such a way that no person has similar neighbor then it is given as ½ (n – 1)!

➖The number of necklaces formed with n beads of different colors = ½ (n – 1)!

➖nP0 =1

➖nP1 = n

➖nPn = n!/(n-n)! = n! /0! = n! /1= n!

🎯Important Points of NCERT 🎯

🌟1. The world's first National Park (America) – Yellow stone National Park
🌟2. India's first National Park – Jim Corbett National Park – Nainital (Uttaranchal)
🌟3. Smallest tiger reserve in India – Ranthambore National Park - Sawaimadhopur (Rajasthan).
🌟4. Largest Tiger reserve in India – Nagarjuna Sagar Saisailum Sanctuary - Guntoor - Andhra Pradesh.
🌟5. Nandan-Kanan zoo (Bhubaneshwar - Orissa) is known for - White tiger.

🌟Some Important Info.🌟 ✔️

(i) National Forest Policy revised in – 1988.
(ii) Biodiversity act of India was passed by the Parliament in the year-2002
(iii) Forest Act–1927.
(iv) Biosphere Reserve Scheme– 1986

🌟2. Wild life protection act 1972 (Revised in 1991) :

⚡️Difference between Fimbriae and Pili

🏷 The fimbriae differ from the pili in the following ways:

〽️Pili are fine hair like microfibers having pilin – a thick tubular structure while the fimbriae are tiny bristle-like fibers emerging from the surface of the bacterial cells

〽️Pili are longer than fimbriae
Occurrence of the fimbriae in each cell is about 200-400 while the occurrence of pili are lesser than one to ten every cell

〽️Fimbriae are found in the both the gram negative and positive bacteria both, pili are present in the gram negative bacteria only

〽️The fimbriae are composed of fibrillin protein while the pilin protein makes up the pili

〽️The fimbriae are less rigid compared to the pili

〽️The formation of fimbriae is administered by the bacterial genes in the nucleoid area while the pili is administered by the plasmid genes

〽️Fimbriae plays a role in attaching cells to the surface while pili are critical in bacterial conjugation

𝙈𝙤𝙧𝙥𝙝𝙤𝙡𝙤𝙜𝙮 𝙛𝙪𝙧𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧:-

⚜Underground Stems:-

The stem of some plants lie below the soil surface. They are non-green, store food as means of perennation and vegetative propagation.

They are of following types:-

(a) Rhizome It is a prostrate thick stem growing horizontally beneath the soil surface. It has distinct nodes and internodes. The. nodes bear small scale leaves with buds in their axils, e.g., Zingiber (ginger officinale), Curcuma domestica (turmeric).

(b) Suckers These are non-green slender stem that grows horizontally in the soil and ultimately comes out to form a new aerial shoot. Each sucker contains one or more nodes with scale leaves and axillary buds, e.g., Mentha (podina), Chrysanthemum (guldaudi).

(c) Corm It is a swollen condensed form of rhizome which grows in the vertical direction in the soil. It stores a large amount of food, e.g., Amorphophallus, Colocasia (taro).

(d) Tuber It is a swollen end of underground stem branches. Each tuber has many notches on the surface called eyes or buds, which grow into new plants, e.g, Solanum tuberosum (potato).

(e) Bulb It is a highly reduced disc like stem. It bears a large number of fibrous adventitious roots at its base. Leaf bases form bulblets. The bulblets grow into new plants, e.g., Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic).

IMP TOPIC ....🔥

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ........⛓🧪
Chromosomal theory of inheritance was given by Walter Sutton in 1902. This theory also explains the linear structure of chromosomes with genes in particular sites which was mentioned as loci while Boveri also studied this theory separately. So, this theory is also known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. According to this theory-

(i) Genes are found at specific locations on the chromosomes.

(ii) During meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate.

(iii) After fertilization the number of chromosomes becomes diploid.

(iv) Chromosomes segregate as well as assort independently.

Mutation...🧶
The sudden changes in the sequence of DNA are known as mutations. The changes in the DNA may be heritable and will be passed onto the next generations affecting both the genotype, as well as the phenotype of an individual. The different types of mutation are frameshift mutations, insertions, deletions, duplications, substitutions, etc. Mutations may be harmful or may not affect at all.

(i) The addition or deletion of DNA bases will lead to changes in the reading frame called the Frameshift mutations.

(ii) The addition of DNA bases is known as insertions.

(iii) Removal of DNA bases is known as deletions.

(iv) If a piece of DNA is copied for more than one time is known as duplication.

Thus, these mutations will lead to a change in the DNA sequence resulting in the formation of the wrong protein.

Movement and locomotion skeletal system:-

1. Skull bones
2. Vertebral column
3. Sternum
4. Ribs
5. Fore limbs , Hind limbs
6. Girdles
7. Joints
8. Disorders of bones

P.S. hyoid bone is only bone which is not attached with any other one of the body.

Tongue is attached with hyoid bone✨ 🌸

❤️SOME TERMS RELATED TO EVOLUTION❤️

💠Adaptation:

🔶Changing to fit a niche or survive in an environment

💠Anatomy:

🔶Study of the structures of organisms

💠Artificial Selection:

🔶Characteristics selected by humans

💠Biogeography:

🔶Study of how species are distributed across the Earth

💠Biological Species:

🔶Individuals that can interbreed and produce viable offspring

💠Catastrophism:

🔶Changes in species that happen because of quick and often violent natural phenomena

💠Cladistics:

🔶Method of classifying species in groups based on ancestral relationships

💠Cladogram:

🔶Diagram of how species are related

💠Coevolution:

🔶One species changing in response to changes in another species that it interacts with, particularly predator/prey relationships

💠Creationism:

🔶Belief that a higher power created all life

💠Darwinism:

🔶Term commonly used as a synonym for evolution

💠Descent With Modification:

🔶Passing down traits that might change over time

💠Directional Selection:

🔶Type of natural selection in which an extreme characteristic is favored


💠Disruptive Selection:

🔶Type of natural selection that favors both extremes and selects against the average characteristics

💠Embryology:

🔶Study of the earliest stages of development of an organism

💠Endosymbiotic Theory:

🔶Currently accepted theory as to how cells evolved

💠Eukaryote:

🔶Organism made of cells that have membrane-bound organelles

💠Evolution:

🔶Change in populations over time

💠Fossil Record:

🔶All known traces of past life ever found

💠Fundamental Niche:

🔶All available roles an individual can play in an ecosystem

💠Genetics:

🔶Study of traits and how they are passed down from generation to generation

💠Gradualism:

🔶Changes in species that happen over long periods of time

💠Habitat:

🔶Area in which an organism lives

💠Homologous Structures:

🔶Body parts on different species that are similar and most likely evolved from a common ancestor

💠Hydrothermal Vents:

🔶Very hot areas in the ocean where primitive life might have begun

💠Intelligent Design:

🔶Belief that a higher power created life and its changes

💠Macroevolution:

🔶Changes in populations at the species level, including ancestral relationships

💠Mass Extinction:

🔶Event in which large numbers of species died out completely

💠Microevolution:

🔶Changes in species at a molecular or gene level.....

Name Reactions Of Halides🙂