Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Anonymous Quiz
7%
1 Only
12%
2 Only
78%
Both 1 and 2
3%
Neither 1 nor 2
The term Cu-Phen recently seen in news is related to,
a. A new type of leather tanning chemical
b. Nano-sized particles mimicking natural enzymes
c. A synthetic polymer for textile industries
d. A biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture
a. A new type of leather tanning chemical
b. Nano-sized particles mimicking natural enzymes
c. A synthetic polymer for textile industries
d. A biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture
📣❇️Types of Vaccines:
Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against specific diseases by stimulating the immune system. There are five main types of vaccines, based on how they are made and how they work.
🔹1. Live Attenuated Vaccines
Definition:
Contain a weakened (attenuated) form of the actual pathogen that can replicate without causing disease in healthy individuals.
Key Points:
Closest to a natural infection.
Strong, long-lasting immunity.
Usually need only 1 or 2 doses.
Examples:
BCG (for TB)
MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella)
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)
Yellow Fever Vaccine
Limitations:
Not suitable for immunocompromised individuals.
🔹2. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines
What it is:
Contains pathogens that are killed or inactivated by chemicals or heat.
How it works:
Cannot replicate in the body, but triggers an immune response.
Examples:
Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV)
Hepatitis A vaccine
Rabies vaccine
Influenza vaccine (some types)
Pros:
Safe for immunocompromised individuals.
Cons:
Requires multiple doses/boosters for full protection.
🔹3. Toxoid Vaccines
What it is:
Made from inactivated bacterial toxins (called toxoids).
How it works:
Builds immunity against toxins produced by bacteria, not the bacteria itself.
Examples:
Tetanus (T) vaccine
Diphtheria (D) vaccine
Pros:
Safe and stable.
Cons:
Immunity may need boosters.
🔹4. Subunit, Recombinant, and Conjugate Vaccines
What it is:
Contains parts (subunits) of the pathogen — like proteins or sugars.
How it works:
Triggers immune response without introducing the entire germ.
Examples:
Hepatitis B (recombinant)
HPV vaccine
Pneumococcal vaccine
Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib)
COVID-19 Novavax vaccine (protein subunit)
Pros:
Safe, especially for people with weak immune systems.
Cons:
May need adjuvants (boosters) to enhance immune response.
🔹5. mRNA Vaccines (New Technology)
What it is:
Uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus (usually the spike protein).
How it works:
Immune system recognizes the spike protein and develops immunity.
Examples:
Pfizer-BioNTech (Comirnaty)
Moderna COVID-19 vaccine
Pros:
Quick to design.
No live virus is used.
Cons:
Requires ultra-cold storage.
Still under study for long-term effects.
🔹6. Viral Vector Vaccines
What it is:
Uses a harmless virus (vector) to deliver genetic material from the target pathogen.
How it works:
Body produces the pathogen’s protein → triggers immune response.
Examples:
Covishield (AstraZeneca)
Sputnik V
Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine
Pros:
Strong immune response.
Cons:
Pre-existing immunity to vector may reduce effectiveness.
Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against specific diseases by stimulating the immune system. There are five main types of vaccines, based on how they are made and how they work.
🔹1. Live Attenuated Vaccines
Definition:
Contain a weakened (attenuated) form of the actual pathogen that can replicate without causing disease in healthy individuals.
Key Points:
Closest to a natural infection.
Strong, long-lasting immunity.
Usually need only 1 or 2 doses.
Examples:
BCG (for TB)
MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella)
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)
Yellow Fever Vaccine
Limitations:
Not suitable for immunocompromised individuals.
🔹2. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines
What it is:
Contains pathogens that are killed or inactivated by chemicals or heat.
How it works:
Cannot replicate in the body, but triggers an immune response.
Examples:
Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV)
Hepatitis A vaccine
Rabies vaccine
Influenza vaccine (some types)
Pros:
Safe for immunocompromised individuals.
Cons:
Requires multiple doses/boosters for full protection.
🔹3. Toxoid Vaccines
What it is:
Made from inactivated bacterial toxins (called toxoids).
How it works:
Builds immunity against toxins produced by bacteria, not the bacteria itself.
Examples:
Tetanus (T) vaccine
Diphtheria (D) vaccine
Pros:
Safe and stable.
Cons:
Immunity may need boosters.
🔹4. Subunit, Recombinant, and Conjugate Vaccines
What it is:
Contains parts (subunits) of the pathogen — like proteins or sugars.
How it works:
Triggers immune response without introducing the entire germ.
Examples:
Hepatitis B (recombinant)
HPV vaccine
Pneumococcal vaccine
Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib)
COVID-19 Novavax vaccine (protein subunit)
Pros:
Safe, especially for people with weak immune systems.
Cons:
May need adjuvants (boosters) to enhance immune response.
🔹5. mRNA Vaccines (New Technology)
What it is:
Uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus (usually the spike protein).
How it works:
Immune system recognizes the spike protein and develops immunity.
Examples:
Pfizer-BioNTech (Comirnaty)
Moderna COVID-19 vaccine
Pros:
Quick to design.
No live virus is used.
Cons:
Requires ultra-cold storage.
Still under study for long-term effects.
🔹6. Viral Vector Vaccines
What it is:
Uses a harmless virus (vector) to deliver genetic material from the target pathogen.
How it works:
Body produces the pathogen’s protein → triggers immune response.
Examples:
Covishield (AstraZeneca)
Sputnik V
Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine
Pros:
Strong immune response.
Cons:
Pre-existing immunity to vector may reduce effectiveness.
'Gaurav' recently seen in the news refers to:
Anonymous Quiz
10%
A new AI-based governance platform launched
59%
A glide bomb developed by DRDO for precision targeting.
25%
An initiative for promoting traditional Indian art forms.
5%
A scheme for rural employment generation.
The 'Debt Service Ratio (DSR)' of a household in India refers to:
Anonymous Quiz
19%
The ratio of total debt to total assets.
62%
The proportion of income used to repay debt obligations.
14%
The ratio of savings to expenditures.
5%
The percentage of income invested in government bonds.
📣❇️BOD and COD – Simplified:
1. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Definition:
BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) required by aerobic microorganisms to break down organic matterpresent in a water sample over a specific time period (usually 5 days at 20°C).
Key Points:
Indicates the organic pollution level in water.
Higher BOD = more organic pollution.
Commonly used to assess sewage or wastewater quality.
Unit:
mg/L (milligrams per litre)
Ideal Range:
Drinking Water: BOD < 1 mg/L
Highly polluted water: BOD > 10 mg/L
Sources of High BOD:
Sewage discharge
Agricultural runoff
Industrial effluents
Food processing wastes
Why Important?
High BOD reduces oxygen available to aquatic life → leads to fish kills and eutrophication.
🔹2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Definition:
COD is the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize all organic (and some inorganic) substances in a water sample using a strong chemical oxidant.
Key Points:
Measures both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter.
Faster than BOD test (takes only a few hours).
Used in industrial wastewater monitoring.
Unit:
mg/L
Typical Values:
Clean water: COD < 20 mg/L
Polluted water: COD > 200 mg/L
Chemical Used:
Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) in acidic medium.
🔰Mains Question:
Q. Explain the significance of BOD and COD as indicators of water quality. How are these parameters relevant in managing industrial effluents and urban sewage? (10 Marks)
1. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Definition:
BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) required by aerobic microorganisms to break down organic matterpresent in a water sample over a specific time period (usually 5 days at 20°C).
Key Points:
Indicates the organic pollution level in water.
Higher BOD = more organic pollution.
Commonly used to assess sewage or wastewater quality.
Unit:
mg/L (milligrams per litre)
Ideal Range:
Drinking Water: BOD < 1 mg/L
Highly polluted water: BOD > 10 mg/L
Sources of High BOD:
Sewage discharge
Agricultural runoff
Industrial effluents
Food processing wastes
Why Important?
High BOD reduces oxygen available to aquatic life → leads to fish kills and eutrophication.
🔹2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Definition:
COD is the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize all organic (and some inorganic) substances in a water sample using a strong chemical oxidant.
Key Points:
Measures both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter.
Faster than BOD test (takes only a few hours).
Used in industrial wastewater monitoring.
Unit:
mg/L
Typical Values:
Clean water: COD < 20 mg/L
Polluted water: COD > 200 mg/L
Chemical Used:
Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) in acidic medium.
🔰Mains Question:
Q. Explain the significance of BOD and COD as indicators of water quality. How are these parameters relevant in managing industrial effluents and urban sewage? (10 Marks)
The Hindu newspaper analysis(17th APIL 2025) by Santhosh Rao Menneni sir:
#### NATIONAL #####
1. SC wary of denotifiying Waqf-by-user lands
2.India and China speed up efforts to restart Kailash Mansarovar pilgrimage
3. Protect Kancha Gachibowli ‘forest’, SC tells Telangana
4. Maharashtra govt. flayed over ‘cuts’ to Ladki Bahin scheme
5.Northeastern region is gateway to Southeast Asia, says Jaishankar
6.Urdu is the finest specimen of composite cultural ethos of India, says Supreme Court
7.Almonds rein in weight, cholesterol and hypertension, confirms study
##### EDITORIAL #####
1.The unfinished fight of an ‘anti-national’
2.Shaping a response to the U.S.’s reciprocal tariffs
3.Good news, and bad
4.Monsoon anticipation
##### OPINION #####
1.Call for permanent settlement for tribals
##### TEXT & CONTEXT #####
1.How China is fighting U.S. tariffs
##### SCIENCE #####
1.Does AI still hallucinate or is it becoming more reliable?
##### INTERNATIONAL #####
1.Trump orders tariff probe on critical mineral imports
2.Palestinians displaced by Israeli raids in the West Bank left with few shelters
##### ECONOMY #####
1.WTO forecasts global merchandise trade to fall 0.2% amid tariff tensions
2.Pharmaceutical companies expected to absorb any tariff hit in short term
#### NATIONAL #####
1. SC wary of denotifiying Waqf-by-user lands
2.India and China speed up efforts to restart Kailash Mansarovar pilgrimage
3. Protect Kancha Gachibowli ‘forest’, SC tells Telangana
4. Maharashtra govt. flayed over ‘cuts’ to Ladki Bahin scheme
5.Northeastern region is gateway to Southeast Asia, says Jaishankar
6.Urdu is the finest specimen of composite cultural ethos of India, says Supreme Court
7.Almonds rein in weight, cholesterol and hypertension, confirms study
##### EDITORIAL #####
1.The unfinished fight of an ‘anti-national’
2.Shaping a response to the U.S.’s reciprocal tariffs
3.Good news, and bad
4.Monsoon anticipation
##### OPINION #####
1.Call for permanent settlement for tribals
##### TEXT & CONTEXT #####
1.How China is fighting U.S. tariffs
##### SCIENCE #####
1.Does AI still hallucinate or is it becoming more reliable?
##### INTERNATIONAL #####
1.Trump orders tariff probe on critical mineral imports
2.Palestinians displaced by Israeli raids in the West Bank left with few shelters
##### ECONOMY #####
1.WTO forecasts global merchandise trade to fall 0.2% amid tariff tensions
2.Pharmaceutical companies expected to absorb any tariff hit in short term