Mosses
Two stages
1) protonema (develop directly from spore)
2) leafy (develop from sec. Protonema as lateral bud)

ANGIOSPERM
• specialised str called flowers 🌸
• divided into monocotyledons + dicotyledons
• double fertilization

Pteridophytes
Includes horsetail & ferns.
Used for medicinal purpose. First teresstial plants to posses vascular tissues
Main plant body is sporophyte
Homosporous + heterosporous

COMPLETE GLYCOLYSIS

▪️ATP= 4
▪️NADPH2=2 [6ATP]

▫️ATP USED=-2ATP so , SLP =2ATP
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖
▪️GAIN ATP=8ATP ✔
➖➖➖➖➖➖➖

▭▬▭▬▭▬▭▬▭▬▭▬▭▬

Important terms in Biology for NEET 2023

➖ DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic information.
➖ RNA: Ribonucleic acid, a molecule that plays a key role in protein synthesis.
➖ Protein: A macromolecule made up of amino acids that carries out a variety of functions in the cell.
➖ Enzyme: A type of protein that catalyzes chemical reactions in the cell.
➖ Cell membrane: The thin, flexible layer that surrounds all cells and regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
➖ Mitosis: The process by which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
➖ Meiosis: The process by which cells divide to produce gametes (sperm and eggs), each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
➖ Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.
➖ Allele: One of two or more alternative forms of a gene.
➖ Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence that can result in altered gene function or the creation of new alleles.
➖ Natural selection: The process by which individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to the evolution of populations over time.
➖ Adaptation: A trait or characteristic that increases an organism's fitness in its environment.
➖ Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of organic compounds.
➖ Cellular respiration: The process by which cells convert organic compounds into energy in the form of ATP.
➖ Ecosystem: A community of living and non-living things that interact with each other and their environment.
➖ Homeostasis: The ability of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment in the face of changing external conditions.
➖ Evolution: The process by which species change over time as a result of genetic variation and natural selection.
➖ Ecology: The study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment.
➖ Biotechnology: The use of living organisms or their products to develop new products or processes.
➖ Epidemiology: The study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations.
➖ Chromosome: A structure made of DNA and protein that carries genetic information.
➖ Cytoplasm: The gel-like substance inside a cell that contains organelles and other cell components.
➖ Organelle: A specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function.
➖ Nucleus: The control center of a cell that contains the cell's DNA.
➖ Ribosome: The site of protein synthesis in a cell.
➖ Mitochondria: The organelles responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration.
➖ Chloroplast: The organelles in plant cells responsible for photosynthesis.
➖ Cytoskeleton: The network of protein filaments that give a cell its shape and allow for movement.
➖ Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of membranes in the cytoplasm that is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
➖ Golgi apparatus: An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or transport.
➖ Lysosome: An organelle that contains enzymes for breaking down and recycling cellular waste.
➖ Vacuole: A membrane-bound organelle that stores materials such as water, nutrients, and waste products.
➖ ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the molecule that carries energy within cells.
➖ Aerobic respiration: The process of producing ATP in the presence of oxygen.
➖ Anaerobic respiration: The process of producing ATP in the absence of oxygen.

The Genome
😍 Biology HANDWRITTEN NOTES 😍

💞 QUICK REVISION 💞

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"#HumanBodyFacts"

• Biggest Cell : Egg Cell (Ovum)

• Smallest Cell : Sperm

• Largest Cell : Nerves Cell

• Smallest Muscle : Stapedius

• Largest Muscle : Gluteus maximus

• Longest Muscle : Sartorius

• Strongest Muscle : Masseter

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NEET 2023 QUESTION PAPER.pdf

Notes on Molecular Basis of Inheritance

DNA
(1) DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
(2) The length of the DNA depends on the number of nucleotide pairs present in it.
(3) Bacteriophage lambda has 48,502 base pairs.

Central dogma of molecular biology
(1) Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology
(2) It states that the genetic information flows from DNA à RNA à Protein.
(3) In some viruses like retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, which is from RNA à DNA à mRNA à Protein.

Structure of polynucleotide chain:

(1) A nucleotide has three components-
(a) A nitrogen base
(b) A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)
(c) A phosphoric acid.

(2) There are two types of nitrogen bases:
(a) Purines (Adenine and Guanine)
(b) Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine)

(3) Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are common in RNA and DNA.
(4) Uracil is present in RNA and in DNA in place of Uracil, Thymine is present.
(5) In RNA, Pentose sugar is ribose and in DNA, it is Deoxyribose.

(6) Based on the nature of pentose sugar, two types of nucleosides are formed - ribonucleoside and deoxyribonucleotides.
(7) Two nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ Phosphodiester linkage to form dinucleotide.
(8) More than two nucleotides join to form polynucleotide chain.
(9) The two strands of DNA  (called DNA duplex) are antiparallel and complementary, i.i., one in 5’->3’ direction and the other in 3”->5” direction.

History of DNA

(1) DNA is an acidic substance in the nucleus.
(2) It was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He named it as ‘Nuclein”
(3) In 1953 double helix structure of DNA was given by James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray diffraction data produced Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

Packaging of DNA Helix

(1) The basic unit into which DNA is packed in the chromatin of eukaryotes.
(2) Nucleosome is the basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin, which contains nine histone proteins.
(3) Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm
(4) The length of the DNA in a typical mammalian cell will be 6.6 X109 bp X 0.34 X10-9 /bp, it comes about 2.2 meters.
(5) The length of DNA is more than the dimension of a typical nucleus (10-6m)


DNA Replication

(1) DNA is the only molecule capable of self duplication so it is termed as a living molecule.
(2) All living beings have the capacity to reproduce because of DNA.
(3) DNA replication takes place in S-phase of the cell cycle. At the time of cell division, it divides in equal parts in the daughter cells.
(4) Delbruck suggested three methods of DNA replication i.e.
(i) Dispersive
(ii) Conservative
(iii) Semi-conservative
(5) The process of DNA replication takes a few minutes in prokaryotes and a few hours in eukaryotes.


RNA
(1) RNA is the first genetic material.
(2) RNA is a non hereditary nucleic acid except in some viruses (retroviruses).
(3) RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as catalyst.
(4) It is a polymer of ribonucleotide and is made up of pentose ribose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogenous base (A,U,G,C).
(5) RNA may be of two types – genetic and non-genetic.

Notes on Neural Control and Coordination

Parts of nervous system
(1) Nervous system is divided into three parts:

(i) Central nervous system (CNS):

(a) In all the vertebrates including man, CNS is dorsal, hollow and non-ganglionated while in invertebrates when present, it is ventral, solid and ganglionated.

(b) CNS is formed of two parts:

Brain – Upper and broader part lying in the head; and

Spinal cord – Lower, long and narrow part running from beginning of neck to trunk.

(ii) Peripheral nervous system (PNS):

(a) It is formed of long, thin, whitish threads called nerves which extend between CNS and body parts (muscles, glands and sense organs).

(b) It controls the voluntary functions of the body.

(c) It has cranial and spinal nerves.

(iii) Autonomic nervous system (ANS):

(a) It is formed of nerve fibres extending upto visceral organs and controls the involuntary functions of visceral organs of body like heart beat, peristalsis etc.

(b) It is again formed of two systems: sympathetic and para-sympathetic nervous system which has opposing functions.


Central nervous system:
(1) Central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord. CNS is covered by 3 meninges and its wall has two type of matter.

(2) Types of matter: CNS of vertebrates is formed of two types of matter –

(a) Grey matter: It is formed of cell-bodies and non-medullated nerve fibres.

(b) White matter: It is formed of only medullated nerve fibres which appear white due to presence of medullary sheath.

Brain (Encephalon):
It is soft, whitish, large sized and slightly flattened structure present inside cranial cavity of cranium of the skull. In man, it is about 1200-1400 gm in weight and has about 10,000 million neurons. Brain is made up of 3 parts

(1) Fore brain (Prosencephalon)

(i) Olfactory lobe – Rhinencephalon

(ii) Cerebrum – Telencephalon

(iii) Diencephalon – Diencephalon

(2) Mid brain (Mesencephalon)

(i) Optic lobes – Mesencephalon

(3) Hind brain (Rhambencephalon)

(i) Cerebellum – Metencephalon                 

(ii) Medulla oblongata – Myelencephalon



Reflex action

(1) The reflex actions are involuntary actions because these are not under the conscious control of the brain.

(2) The spinal cord and brain stem are responsible for most of the reflex movements.

(3) A few examples of the reflex actions are withdrawal of hand or leg if pricked by a pin, secretion of saliva as soon as one thinks of delicious food or mere its sight causes salivation, if the body part is touched with acid or hot object it is automatically, without thinking and planning is withdrawn, cycling, motor driving etc.

(4) Component of reflex action: The whole of the reflex are includes six parts –

(a) Receptor organs: Receptors are windows of the body or guards of the body. These are situated on all, important organs, for example – eyes, nose, ear, tongue, integument etc. These perceive the stimuli from outside the body.

(b) Sensory neurons: These are also termed afferent neurons. These carry the stimuli from receptors to spinal cord. These neurons are situated in the ganglion on the dorsal side of spinal cord.

(c) Nerve centre: Spinal cord is termed as nerve centre. Synaptic connections are formed in it.

(d) Association neurons: These are also called intermediate neurons or interstitial neurons. These are found in spinal cord. They transfer the impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons.

(e) Motor neurons: These are situated in the ventral horn of spinal cord. These carry the impulses to effector organs.

(f) Effector organs: These are the organs, which react and behave in response to various stimuli, for example – muscles and glands.

(5) Type of reflexes: The reflexes are of following types –

(a) Monosynaptic reflex                                             

(b) Polysynaptic Spinal Reflex

(c) Polysynaptic Spinal/Brain Reflexes    

(d) Unconditioned or Simple reflex

(e) Conditioned or Acquired reflex

♦️Revision Notes on Mineral Nutrition♦️

(1) Macronutrients (Macroelements or major elements): Nutrients which are required by plants in larger amounts (Generally present in the plant tissues in concentrations of 1 to 10 mg per gram of dry matter).

(2) The macronutrients include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, potassium, calcium, magnesium.

(3) Micronutrients (Microelements or minor elements or trace elements): Nutrients which are required by plants in very small amounts, i.e., in traces (equal to or less than 0.1 mg per gram dry matter).

(4) The micronutrients include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron and chlorine. Recent research has shown that some elements, such as cobalt, vanadium and nickel, may be essential for certain plants.

Major Role of Nutrients
Various elements perform the following major role in the plants:

(1) Construction of the plant body: The elements particularly C, H and O construct the plant body by entering into the constitution of cell wall and protoplasm. They are, therefore, referred to as frame work elements. Besides, these (C, H and O) N, P and S also enter in the constitution of protoplasm. They are described as protoplasmic elements.

(2) Maintenance of osmotic pressure: Various minerals present in the cell sap in organic or inorganic form maintain the osmotic pressure of the cell.

(3) Maintenance of permeability of cytomembranes: The minerals, particularly Ca++, K+ and Na+ maintain the permeability of cytomembranes.

(4) Influence the pH of the cell sap: Different cations and anions influence on the pH of the cell sap.

(5) Catalysis of biochemical reaction: Several elements particularly Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cl act as metallic catalyst in biochemical reactions.

(6) Toxic effects: Minerals like Cu, As, etc. impart toxic effect on the protoplasm under specific conditions.

(7) Balancing function: Some minerals or their salts act against the harmful effect of the other nutrients, thus balancing each other.

Specific Role of Macronutrients
The role of different elements is described below:

(1) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen: These three elements though cannot be categorized as mineral elements, are indispensible for plant growth. These are also called 'framework elements'.

Chlorosis in Leaves(2) Nitrogen: Nitrogen is an essential constituent of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins and many other organic molecules as chlorophyll. Nitrogen is also present in various hormones, coenzymes and ATP etc.

(i) Deficiency symptoms: The symptoms of nitrogen deficiency are as follows:

(a) Impaired growth

(b) Yellowing of leaves due to loss of chlorophyll, i.e., chlorosis.

(c) Development of anthocyanin pigmentation in veins, sometimes in petioles and stems.

(d) Delayed or complete suppression of flowering and fruiting.

(3) Phosphorus

(a) Phosphorous is present abundantly in the growing and storage organs such as fruits and seeds. It promotes healthy root growth and fruit ripening by helping translocation of carbohydrates.

(i) Deficiency symptoms

(a) Leaves become dark green or purplish.

(b) Sometimes development of anthocyanin pigmentation occurs in veins which may become necrotic (Necrosis is defined as localised death of cells).

(c) Premature fall of leaves.

(4) Sulphur

(i) Functions

(a) Sulphur is a constituent of amino-acids like cystine, cysteine and methionine; vitamins like biotin and thiamine, and coenzyme A.

(ii) Deficiency symptoms

(b) Leaf tips and margins roll downwards and inwards e.g., tobacco, tea and tomato.

(c) Premature leaf fall.

(d) Delayed flowering and fruiting.

(5) Potassium

(i) Functions

(a) It differs from all other macronutrients in not being a constituent of any metabolically important compound.

(b) It is the only monovalent cation essential for the plants.

(c) It acts as an activator of several enzymes including DNA polymerase.

(ii) Deficiency symptoms

(a) Mottled chlorosis followed by the development of necrotic areas at the tips and margins of the leaves.

🔰 Morphology of Flowering Plants 🔰

The morphology of flowering plants refers to the study of the physical structure and form of these plants. It encompasses various aspects of the anatomy and development of flowering plants, including the structure of leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits. Some of the key aspects of the morphology of flowering plants are:

➖ Stem: The stem provides support to the plant and transports water, minerals, and sugars between the roots and the leaves.

➖ Leaves: Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of the plant, and they are usually flat and broad to maximize their surface area for capturing sunlight.

➖ Root: The root anchors the plant in the soil and absorbs water and minerals.

➖ Flowers: Flowers are the reproductive organs of flowering plants and are often brightly colored and scented to attract pollinators.

➖ Fruits: Fruits are the mature ovaries of flowering plants and often contain seeds that can be dispersed by wind, water, or animals.

➖ Inflorescence: An inflorescence is a cluster of flowers on a single stem, and it is often a characteristic feature of many flowering plant species.

➖ Reproductive Structures: The reproductive structures of flowering plants include the male and female gametes, the pollen, the stigma, the style, and the ovary.

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