Contribution of lndo-Greeks in Post Mauryan Peroid
✳️The lndo-Greeks for the first time issued -casted or moulded coins bearing images and inscriptions and also gold coins for the first time. They issued bilingual coinage with legends in Greek and Kharoshti.
✳️They promoted Indian religion and culture as is evident from the conversion of Heliodorus and Menander. Heliodorus, who was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra erected a pillar or garuda-dhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently become a follower of Vishnu.
lndo-Greeks promoted growth of trade and commerce. The Inda-Greeks were good traders and were referred to as Yavana-gandhikas (foreign perfume dealers).
✳️Indo-Greeks contributed to engineering through construction of canals and dams. They also contributed to the growth of medicine and astronomy.
✳️Inda-Greeks promoted Gandhara school of art in the north-west.

Art and Literature in Kushana empire
📌The Greek influence led to an Indo-Greek style of sculpture and art commonly referred to as Gandhara art. Statues of Buddha, sculpted particularly in Taxila and the north-western regions, show him in graceful garments, surrounded by cherubs and leaves inspired by the Greek tradition.
📌The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai.
📌Large statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana tradition, and in later centuries, they were further embellished with murals of extraordinary beauty, as seen in the Ajanta caves.
📌Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
📌Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
📌The great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays were re-discovered only about a hundred years ago in South India, most probably belonged to this period.
📌Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second century CE.

UPSC CSE 2023 | Law Optional Paper 2 - Section B, 'Contract and Mercantile Law and Contemporary Legal Developments' Detailed Solution and Analysis by Jasbir Singh Bajaj Sir, IAS (R.), Director BE N BY IAS

In this video, Jasbir Singh Bajaj Sir, former IAS and Director of BE N BY IAS has provided a detailed solution and analysis of the UPSC CSE 2023 Law Optional Paper II- Section B, Law of Contract and Mercantile Law and Contemporary Legal Developments. 🔥

Species interaction types in an Ecosystem☝️

Significance of Satavahana Rule:
🖍️There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule.
🖍️Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into existence.
🖍️Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
🖍️The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan.
They had many ports on the west coast such as Bharuch, Sapara, Kalyani on the west coast. Parts such as Amaravati, Ghantasala, Goli and Ganjam were situated on the east coast.
🖍️Satavahanas contributed to the growth of coinage system. They issued many coins in various denominations in gold, silver, copper and lead.

Pyramid of Numbers:
✍ Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different species (population) at each trophic level.
✍ Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright, and may even be completely inverted.
✍ It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of numbers does not completely define the trophic structure of an ecosystem.

Sangam Literature
✳️The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics-Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
✳️Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam period.
✳️The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
✳️The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
✳️Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups- Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
✳️Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
✳️Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:
✅ It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
✅ It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web.
✅ Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.

Chera dynasty in Ancient History
✳️The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
✳️They had the palmyra flowers as their garland.
✳️The Pugalur inscription of the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.
✳️Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings.
✳️Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman coins. There are many other Chera coins with their bow and arrow emblem but without any writing on them.
✳️Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.

✅ Edwin Hubble in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart.
✅ He identified this phenomenon through the phenomenon of redshift. When the light from a galaxy which is moving away from you is observed the wavelength of the observed light appears longer, it moves toward the red end of the spectrum. This is called the Red Shift.
✅ According to the Big Bang Theory, the event of the Big Bang took place 13.7 billion years ago. All the matter-forming universe existed in one place in the form of a "tiny ball" (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density

The UPSC Law Optional syllabus and exam pattern is the Blueprint for the UPSC Civil Services Examination and the first step toward becoming familiar with the exam.

Law Optional Paper conducted by the UPSC consists of two Papers:
1) Paper-I consisting of Constitutional & Administrative Law and International Law
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The second method to be acquainted with the exam pattern is to skim through the Previous Year’s Questions Papers (PYQs). By going through the PYQs, you can analyze the topics that are asked repeatedly and considered more relevant for the upcoming exam.

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🪔✨ Team BE N BY IAS wishing you and your loved ones a very Happy Diwali! 🎉

Let's celebrate the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil. May the coming year be filled with health, wealth, and countless opportunities for growth.

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