FOXP2 is usually called "the language gene." It exists in many animals and is usually conserved (unchanged) in mammals, except in humans, where it had some mutations.


So, what did researchers do?
They took the human version of FOXP2 and inserted it in the mouse genome... Now, guess what happened:
These mice acquired skills and information faster than the normal mice.

So maybe what the mutations of the language gene did, is that they accelerated our already-existing ability to learn language, rather than "give us" the ability in the first place.

Spironolactone blocks the androgen receptors and decreases testosterone production from testes. In addition it displaces testosterone from sex hormone-binding globulin, and enhances the metabolic clearance of testosterone. It increases the levels of estrogen by enhancing peripheral conversion of testosterone to estradiol.

10% of patients treated with spironolactone will develop gynecomastia.

Eplerenone, on the other hand, does not have the same anti-androgenic effect as spironolactone, and only 0.5% are affected by gynecomastia.

That's why:
You can use eplerenone in patients who cannot tolerate the anti-androgenic effect of spironolactone.

Laparoscopic cystogastrostomy:
They basically make an opening about 4 cm between the posterior wall of stomach and anterior wall of the cyst.

Also known as, Infections Mononucleosis, and Glandular fever

Clinical picture

Pathophysiology

تبقى ملاحظة أخيرة نسيت أذكرها:
الـ swollen lymph nodes سببها هو أنّ الفايروس يصيب الـ B-cells الموجودة بيها

Simple renal cyst
Or renal epithelial cyst

They are the most common type of renal cysts. The incidence increases with age. Approximately 25% of people who are 40 years or older and approximately 50% of people 50 years and older have simple kidney cysts.

They are mostly asymptomatic and detected incidentally upon radiological exams of the abdomen or at autopsy. And they can be bilateral. Management is not required unless the cyst becomes infected or enlarges and causes symptoms.

If a cyst becomes infected, antibiotics are necessary. If a cyst is so large that it is exerting mass effect or pressure on another organ, the two most common procedures for treating simple kidney cysts are (1) aspiration and sclerotherapy and (2) laparoscopic surgery to remove the cyst. Ethanol is most commonly used in sclerotherapy.

Signs and symptoms of cystic renal cell carcinoma include:

- Macroscopic hematuria (in 60% of patients)
- Flank pain (40%)
- Palpable flank mass (30-40%)

But only 10-15% of patients will present with the classic triad of symptoms.

Notes on Hematuria:

Red urine is not always caused by hematuria. A variety of medications, food dyes, and metabolites can cause heme-negative red urine, or pigmenturia. Furthermore, not all dipstick tests positive for blood are due to hematuria. In addition to detecting heme in intact red blood cells (RBCs), urine dipsticks detect free hemoglobin (commonly associated with hemolytic anemia) and myoglobin (commonly associated with rhabdomyolysis), hence leading to false-positive tests for hematuria.

Whenever the urine dipstick is positive for blood, and the microscopic exam of the urine does not show RBCs, myoglobinuria and hemoglobinuria should be considered.