أكو نوع من البروتينات إسمه MHC موجود على سطح كل خلايانا. هالبروتين يستخدمه جهازنا المناعي حتى يتعرف على خلايا الجسم وما يهاجمها.

طفيليات البلهارسيا (Schistosoma) تسرق هالبروتين من خلايا الجسم و—حرفيًا— تلبسه بشكل تمويه حتى الجهاز المناعي ما يتعرف عليها وما يهاجمها

Howell-Jolly bodies are the dark dots inside the RBCs

كريات الدم الحمر بعدما تطلع من نخاع العظم، أغلبهن رح يتخلصن من النواة ويصيرن كريات دم حمر بالغة (Mature RBCs). لكن بعض الخلايا رح تحتفظ ببقايا الـ DNA على شكل نقاط غامقة (basophilic). هاي الخلايا يتخلص منها الطحال بالعادة، لكن إذا الشخص يعاني من مشكلة بالطحال hyposplenic (بأمراض مثل فقر الدم المنجلي والـ celiac disease) أو تم إزالته جراحيًا، فرح نشوف Howell-Jolly bodies بصورة الدم.
Simply; they indicate a problem in the spleen

And btw, about one third of patients with celiac disease suffer also from hyposplenism... Idk why, but it is what it is

The brain and PMS

So GABA is a molecule that we find in the brain... It's the main inhibitory thing there, this simply means that it "shuts down" or "calms down" your brain signals.

Here's a weird thing:
Progesterone (a female sex hormone) can bind to GABA receptors and activates them, therefore "calming down" the brain during certain times of the reproductive cycle.
Women with PMS possibly have a problem in their GABA receptors that reduces progesterone's ability to bind to the receptors, therefore the brain doesn't calm down... Therefore PMS

There's a hormone called Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide (DSIP) which is secreted when we wanna sleep. It has a lowering effect on cortisol (stress hormone) levels

The bottom line: when you're stressed, go to sleep

Virchow's triad of venous thrombosis

- Hypercoagulability
- Endothelial injury
- blood stasis

Diabetes Insipidus (DI) has 2 causes:

Neurogenic:
Anything that impairs the function of the hypothalamus or the pituitary (a tumor, trauma, or infection) so it's no longer able to produce ADH (vasopressin).

Nephrogenic:
Anything that makes the kidney insensitive to ADH (Vasopressin) like:
- Polycystic kidney disease (PKD)
- Amyloidosis
- Hypokalemia
- Hypercalcemia
- Lithium toxicity

Itching & liver disease

Pruritus is a common comorbidity in chronic liver disease and kidney disease. These patients frequently complain of pruritus despite having no rash or skin findings. Patients with chronic liver disease develop systemic itch that significantly impairs activity and sleep. 

Pruritis can also happen with CKD patients but is usually due to urea, unlike in liver disease where it happens due to bile salts deposits under the skin.

Pruritis: The fancy medical term for itching

Diphtheria presentation and management

Intro

Hight risk group

Case presentation

Management

Forgot to mention that we should give the confirmed cases antitoxin serum and if he/she showed hypersensitive it’s recommended to inject hydrocortisone with the serum.