🌿 simple or absolute frequency
✔️ frequency is the number of times a score occurs.
✔️ it is shown by small letter f.
🌿 relative frequency
✔️ relative frequency refers to the simple frequency of each score divided by the total number of scores .
relative frequency = f / N
🌿 percentage
✔️ when relative frequency index is multiplied by 100 , the result is called percentage.
percentage = relative frequency × 100
🌿 cumulative frequency
✔️ cumulative frequency indicates the standing of any particular score in a group of scores.
✔️ it shows how many scores fall below the given score in a distribution.
✔️ in other words , this index shows how many students received a particular score and less than that.
✔️ this frequency is calculated by adding the frequency of successive intervals in the previous work.
✔️ it is shown by F.
🌿 percentile
✔️ when cumulative frequency index is divided by the total number of learners multiplied by 100 , the result is percentile.
percentile rank = F / N × 100
✔️ percentile rank shows what percentage or students received a particular score or below that.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ frequency is the number of times a score occurs.
✔️ it is shown by small letter f.
🌿 relative frequency
✔️ relative frequency refers to the simple frequency of each score divided by the total number of scores .
relative frequency = f / N
🌿 percentage
✔️ when relative frequency index is multiplied by 100 , the result is called percentage.
percentage = relative frequency × 100
🌿 cumulative frequency
✔️ cumulative frequency indicates the standing of any particular score in a group of scores.
✔️ it shows how many scores fall below the given score in a distribution.
✔️ in other words , this index shows how many students received a particular score and less than that.
✔️ this frequency is calculated by adding the frequency of successive intervals in the previous work.
✔️ it is shown by F.
🌿 percentile
✔️ when cumulative frequency index is divided by the total number of learners multiplied by 100 , the result is percentile.
percentile rank = F / N × 100
✔️ percentile rank shows what percentage or students received a particular score or below that.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
Second_language_research_methodology_and_design_by_Alison_Mackey.pdf
19.3 MB
Mackey&Gass
Second language research: methodology and design(2005).pdf
#research
@Elt_program
@Eltprogram
Second language research: methodology and design(2005).pdf
#research
@Elt_program
@Eltprogram
The_Research_Manual_Design_and_Statistics_for_Applied_Linguistics.pdf
18.1 MB
Hatch & Lazaraton
The Research Manual: Design and Statistics for Applied Linguistics (1991).pdf
#research
@elt_program
@eltprogram
The Research Manual: Design and Statistics for Applied Linguistics (1991).pdf
#research
@elt_program
@eltprogram
🌿 computer adaptive test ( CAT )
✔️ also called tailored test
✔️ a test in which the selection and sequence of items depend on the ongoing pattern of success and failure experienced by the test taker.
⬇️
🔺If the test taker succeeds on a given item , one of greater difficulty is presented.
🔺If he experiences failure , then an easier item is presented.
The testing continues until sufficient information has been gathered to assess a particular test taker's ability.
✔️ advantages:
🔸 computers are more accurate at scoring selected-response tests than human beings are.
🔸 the use of different tests for each student should minimize any practice effects and cheating.
🔸 the use of computers allows students to work at their own pace ➡️ self-pacing
🔸 it is more convenient to provide exam results immediately.
🔸 the tedious problem of student handwriting is eliminated.
✔️ disadvantages:
🔹 most CAT items are limited to only objective recognition format .
🔹 there is the potential of subjecting test candidates to establishing levels of anxiety as a result of the need to manipulate the new technology.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ also called tailored test
✔️ a test in which the selection and sequence of items depend on the ongoing pattern of success and failure experienced by the test taker.
⬇️
🔺If the test taker succeeds on a given item , one of greater difficulty is presented.
🔺If he experiences failure , then an easier item is presented.
The testing continues until sufficient information has been gathered to assess a particular test taker's ability.
✔️ advantages:
🔸 computers are more accurate at scoring selected-response tests than human beings are.
🔸 the use of different tests for each student should minimize any practice effects and cheating.
🔸 the use of computers allows students to work at their own pace ➡️ self-pacing
🔸 it is more convenient to provide exam results immediately.
🔸 the tedious problem of student handwriting is eliminated.
✔️ disadvantages:
🔹 most CAT items are limited to only objective recognition format .
🔹 there is the potential of subjecting test candidates to establishing levels of anxiety as a result of the need to manipulate the new technology.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 multiple-choice item
◼️ advantages:
✔️ multiple-choice tests are administered easily to a large number of test takers in one single testing session.
✔️ in multiple-choice tests there is almost complete intra-rater reliability.
✔️ multiple-choice assessment has the advantage of being useful for measuring a fairly wide variety of different kinds of precise learning points .
◼️ disadvantages:
✔️guessing may have a considerable but unknowable effect on test scores .
⬇️
multiple-choice assessment typically has a 33% , 25% , or 20% guessing factor depending on whether there are three , four, or five options.
✔️ such items require distractors , and distractors are not always available.
✔️ multiple-choice items take much longer and are more expensive and difficult to prepare than more open-ended examinations.
✔️ multiple-choice tests may have a harmful backwash effect.
✔️ multiple-choice tests may facilitate cheating.
✔️ multiple-choice assessments are frequently criticized by language teachers because real-life language use rarely offers options from which speakers can select.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
◼️ advantages:
✔️ multiple-choice tests are administered easily to a large number of test takers in one single testing session.
✔️ in multiple-choice tests there is almost complete intra-rater reliability.
✔️ multiple-choice assessment has the advantage of being useful for measuring a fairly wide variety of different kinds of precise learning points .
◼️ disadvantages:
✔️guessing may have a considerable but unknowable effect on test scores .
⬇️
multiple-choice assessment typically has a 33% , 25% , or 20% guessing factor depending on whether there are three , four, or five options.
✔️ such items require distractors , and distractors are not always available.
✔️ multiple-choice items take much longer and are more expensive and difficult to prepare than more open-ended examinations.
✔️ multiple-choice tests may have a harmful backwash effect.
✔️ multiple-choice tests may facilitate cheating.
✔️ multiple-choice assessments are frequently criticized by language teachers because real-life language use rarely offers options from which speakers can select.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
Victoria_Fromkin,_Robert_Rodman,_Nina_Hyams_An_Introduction_to_Language.pdf
183.3 MB
An introduction to language
(11th edition)
Authors: Fromkin,Rodman,Hymes
#linguistics
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
(11th edition)
Authors: Fromkin,Rodman,Hymes
#linguistics
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A practical test ...
✔️ stays within budgetary limits
✔️ can be completed by the test-taker within appropriate time constraints
✔️ has clear directions for administration
✔️ appropriately utilizes available human resources
✔️ does not exceed available material resources
✔️ considers the time and effort involved to both design and score
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ stays within budgetary limits
✔️ can be completed by the test-taker within appropriate time constraints
✔️ has clear directions for administration
✔️ appropriately utilizes available human resources
✔️ does not exceed available material resources
✔️ considers the time and effort involved to both design and score
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A reliable test ...
✔️ has consistent conditions across two or more administrations
✔️ gives clear directions for scoring/ evaluation
✔️ has uniform rubrics for scoring/evaluation
✔️ lends itself to consistent application of rubrics by the scorer
✔️ contains items/tasks that are unambiguous to the test-taker
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ has consistent conditions across two or more administrations
✔️ gives clear directions for scoring/ evaluation
✔️ has uniform rubrics for scoring/evaluation
✔️ lends itself to consistent application of rubrics by the scorer
✔️ contains items/tasks that are unambiguous to the test-taker
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A valid test ...
✔️ measures exactly what it proposes to measure
✔️ does not measure irrelevant or “contaminating” variables
✔️ relies as much as possible on empirical evidence (performance)
✔️ involves performance that samples the test’s criterion (objective)
✔️ offers useful, meaningful information about a test-taker’s ability
✔️ is supported by a theoretical rationale or argument
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ measures exactly what it proposes to measure
✔️ does not measure irrelevant or “contaminating” variables
✔️ relies as much as possible on empirical evidence (performance)
✔️ involves performance that samples the test’s criterion (objective)
✔️ offers useful, meaningful information about a test-taker’s ability
✔️ is supported by a theoretical rationale or argument
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A test that provides beneficial washback ...
✔️ positively influences what and how teachers teach
✔️ positively influences what and how learners learn
✔️ offers learners a chance to adequately prepare
✔️ gives learners feedback that enhances their language development
✔️ is more formative in nature than summative
✔️ provides conditions for peak performance by the learner
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ positively influences what and how teachers teach
✔️ positively influences what and how learners learn
✔️ offers learners a chance to adequately prepare
✔️ gives learners feedback that enhances their language development
✔️ is more formative in nature than summative
✔️ provides conditions for peak performance by the learner
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Nominal Scale
🔘 The most basic scale of measurement is the nominal scale.
🔘 Nominal measurement involves placing objects or individuals into mutually exclusive categories.
🔘 Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to the categories for identification purposes only.
⬇️
The numbers do not indicate any value or amount; thus, one category does not represent “more or less” of a characteristic.
🔘 Examples of a nominal scale are using a “0” to represent males and a “1” to represent females, or vice versa.
🔘 Because the numbers in a nominal scale do not represent quantity, they cannot be arithmetically manipulated through addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 The most basic scale of measurement is the nominal scale.
🔘 Nominal measurement involves placing objects or individuals into mutually exclusive categories.
🔘 Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to the categories for identification purposes only.
⬇️
The numbers do not indicate any value or amount; thus, one category does not represent “more or less” of a characteristic.
🔘 Examples of a nominal scale are using a “0” to represent males and a “1” to represent females, or vice versa.
🔘 Because the numbers in a nominal scale do not represent quantity, they cannot be arithmetically manipulated through addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Ordinal Scale
🔘 An ordinal scale ranks objects or individuals according to how much of an attribute they possess.
⬇️
Thus, the numbers in an ordinal scale indicate only the order of the categories. Neither the difference between the numbers nor their ratio has meaning.
🔘 Example : A ranking of students in a music contest is an ordinal scale. We would know who was awarded first place, second place, and so on, but we would not know the extent of the difference between them.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 An ordinal scale ranks objects or individuals according to how much of an attribute they possess.
⬇️
Thus, the numbers in an ordinal scale indicate only the order of the categories. Neither the difference between the numbers nor their ratio has meaning.
🔘 Example : A ranking of students in a music contest is an ordinal scale. We would know who was awarded first place, second place, and so on, but we would not know the extent of the difference between them.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Interval Scale
🔘 An interval scale not only places objects or events in order, but also is marked in equal intervals.
⬇️
Equal differences between the units of measurement represent equal differences in the attribute being measured.
🔘 Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are examples of interval scales. We can say that the difference between 60° and 70° is the same as the distance between 30° and 40°, but we cannot say that 60° is twice as warm as 30° because there is no true zero on an interval scale.
⬇️
Zero on an interval scale is an arbitrary point and does not indicate an absence of the variable being measured.
⬇️
Zero on the Celsius scale is arbitrarily set at the temperature at which water freezes at sea level.
🔘 Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction, but because the zero is arbitrary, multiplication and division of the numbers are not feasible.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 An interval scale not only places objects or events in order, but also is marked in equal intervals.
⬇️
Equal differences between the units of measurement represent equal differences in the attribute being measured.
🔘 Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are examples of interval scales. We can say that the difference between 60° and 70° is the same as the distance between 30° and 40°, but we cannot say that 60° is twice as warm as 30° because there is no true zero on an interval scale.
⬇️
Zero on an interval scale is an arbitrary point and does not indicate an absence of the variable being measured.
⬇️
Zero on the Celsius scale is arbitrarily set at the temperature at which water freezes at sea level.
🔘 Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction, but because the zero is arbitrary, multiplication and division of the numbers are not feasible.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program