🌿 cognitive psychology
✔️ cognitive psychologists asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were significant data for psychological study.
✔️ cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, sought to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures of human behavior by using a rational approach.
⬇️
that is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study typical of behaviorists and employed the tools of logic, reason, extrapolation, and inference in order to derive explanations for human behavior.
#teaching
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✔️ cognitive psychologists asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were significant data for psychological study.
✔️ cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, sought to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures of human behavior by using a rational approach.
⬇️
that is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study typical of behaviorists and employed the tools of logic, reason, extrapolation, and inference in order to derive explanations for human behavior.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 constructivism
✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
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✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 formative assessment
✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
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✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 washback/ backwash
✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
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✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 test bias
✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
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✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 authenticity
✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 achievement tests
✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
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✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 knowledge tests
✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 proficiency tests
✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
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✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
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@Elt_program
🌿 placement tests
✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 selection tests
✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 aptitude tests
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 speed tests
✔️ items are comparatively easy
✔️ items are within the ability level of the test takers
✔️ time limit ( few or none of the test takers can complete all items )
✔️ each test taker's score reflects only the speed with which he or she has worked
🌿 power tests
✔️ item difficulty generally increases ( more items too difficult for anyone to solve so that no one can get a perfect score )
✔️it has a time limit long enough to permit everyone to attempt all items
✔️the aim is to determine how much an individual is able to do
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ items are comparatively easy
✔️ items are within the ability level of the test takers
✔️ time limit ( few or none of the test takers can complete all items )
✔️ each test taker's score reflects only the speed with which he or she has worked
🌿 power tests
✔️ item difficulty generally increases ( more items too difficult for anyone to solve so that no one can get a perfect score )
✔️it has a time limit long enough to permit everyone to attempt all items
✔️the aim is to determine how much an individual is able to do
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 direct test
✔️ testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill we wish to measure.
✔️ advantages:
🔘 in the case of the productive skills ➡️ the assessment and interpretation of students' performance is quite straightforward.
🔘 since practice for test involves practice of the skills that we wish to foster ➡️ there is likely to be a positive backwash effect
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 as the receptive skills are essentially unobservable , there is disagreement as to whether it is possible to have direct tests of reading or listening.
🌿 indirect test
✔️ a test which attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested.
⬇️
inference is made from performance
✔️ advantage:
🔘 it seems to offer the possibility of testing a representative sample of a finite number of abilities which underlie a potentially indefinitely large number of manifestations of them.
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 the relationship between performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more interested tends to be rather weak in strength and nature .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill we wish to measure.
✔️ advantages:
🔘 in the case of the productive skills ➡️ the assessment and interpretation of students' performance is quite straightforward.
🔘 since practice for test involves practice of the skills that we wish to foster ➡️ there is likely to be a positive backwash effect
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 as the receptive skills are essentially unobservable , there is disagreement as to whether it is possible to have direct tests of reading or listening.
🌿 indirect test
✔️ a test which attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested.
⬇️
inference is made from performance
✔️ advantage:
🔘 it seems to offer the possibility of testing a representative sample of a finite number of abilities which underlie a potentially indefinitely large number of manifestations of them.
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 the relationship between performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more interested tends to be rather weak in strength and nature .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
Frank_Parker_&_Kathryn_Riley_2010.pdf
182.2 MB
Linguistics For Non-Linguists: A Primer With Exercise
By Frank Parker, Kathryn Riley
#linguistics
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By Frank Parker, Kathryn Riley
#linguistics
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@Elt_program
🌿 rank order
✔️ arranging the scores in the order of size , usually from highest to lowest .
✔️ if two testees received the same score , we should divide the sum of their rank by two. In the case of three similar scores , we divide the sum of their rank by three and so forth.
score rank order
------------------------------------------------------
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
97 5
96 6
95 7.5
95 7.5
93 9
92 11
92 11
92 11
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ arranging the scores in the order of size , usually from highest to lowest .
✔️ if two testees received the same score , we should divide the sum of their rank by two. In the case of three similar scores , we divide the sum of their rank by three and so forth.
score rank order
------------------------------------------------------
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
97 5
96 6
95 7.5
95 7.5
93 9
92 11
92 11
92 11
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program