🔆 Geoengineering Projects & Their Challenges

📍 1️⃣ Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)
✅ Releases aerosols (SO₂, CaCO₃) to reflect sunlight & cool the Earth.
⚠️ Challenges: Termination shock, ineffectiveness in polar winters/summers.

📍 2️⃣ Sea Curtains / Sea Walls
✅ Buoyant barriers prevent warm ocean water from melting polar ice.
⚠️ Challenges: Marine disruption, toxicity, and impact on ocean circulation.

📍 3️⃣ Sea Ice Management
✅ Scattering microbeads or pumping seawater to thicken sea ice.
⚠️ Challenges: Ecotoxicity to marine life, counterproductive warming.

📍 4️⃣ Basal Water Removal
✅ Removes subglacial water to slow ice loss and sea-level rise.
⚠️ Challenge: Highly emission-intensive and costly to maintain.

📍 5️⃣ Ocean Fertilisation (OF)
✅ Adds nutrients to boost phytoplankton and absorb CO₂.
⚠️ Challenges: Ecosystem disruption, nutrient depletion, algal blooms.

#environment

🔆 Major Buddhist Sites in India

📍 Mahabodhi Temple – Bihar
✅ Site of Buddha’s Enlightenment (Bodhi)
✅ Built by Ashoka; rebuilt in Gupta period
✅ Current structure: 5th–6th century CE

📍 Sravasti – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Capital of Kosala Mahajanapada
✅ Buddha spent 24 years preaching
✅ Stupas, monasteries, temples

📍 Kushinagar – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Site of Mahaparinirvana
✅ Ramabhar Stupa (cremation site)
✅ Mahanirvana Temple (reclining Buddha)

📍 Kapilavastu – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Birthplace of Lord Buddha
✅ Stupas & relic caskets
✅ Kushana inscriptions (Kanishka)

📍 Ajanta Caves – Maharashtra
✅ 30 rock-cut Buddhist caves
✅ Jataka tales & murals
✅ 2nd century BCE – 5th century CE

📍 Ellora Caves – Maharashtra
✅ Buddhist, Hindu & Jain caves
✅ 600–1000 CE
✅ Ancient name: Elapura

📍 Pitalkhora Caves – Maharashtra
✅ Early rock-cut caves (2nd century BCE)
✅ Chaityas & Viharas
✅ Hinayana with later Mahayana murals

📍 Sirpur – Chhattisgarh
✅ Buddhist–Hindu–Jain centre
✅ On Mahanadi river
✅ Visited by Hiuen Tsang

📍 Ratnagiri – Odisha
✅ Part of Diamond Triangle
✅ Mahavihara (5th century CE)
✅ Giant Buddha with Padmapani & Vajrapani

📍 Lalitgiri – Odisha
✅ Oldest Buddhist complex in Odisha
✅ Linked to Puspagiri University

#prelims
#art_and_culture

https://t.me/Studytoday1
https://t.me/upsc_art_and_culture

Week 1 short notes pdf

https://t.me/CSE_EXAM

🔆 Western Disturbances

📍 Definition
✅ Eastward-moving extra-tropical weather systems bringing sudden winter rainfall to northwestern India.
✅ Originate beyond Iran & Afghanistan, travel via Pakistan before reaching India.

📍 Origin & Characteristics
✅ Driven by low-pressure systems formed by interaction of polar & tropical air masses.
✅ Moisture source: Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, sometimes Arabian Sea.
✅ Embedded in Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJ) flowing west → east over Himalayas & Tibetan Plateau.

📍 Seasonal Occurrence
✅ Most active in winter (Dec–Mar).
✅ Can also affect pre-monsoon & post-monsoon weather.

📍 Geographical Impact
✅ Influence weather in NW India, N. Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan.
✅ In India → rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, HP, Uttarakhand, UP (parts).
✅ Cause snowfall in Himalayas & cold wave in plains.

📍 Importance for Agriculture
✅ Crucial for Rabi crops (esp. wheat).
✅ Excess/unseasonal rains → crop damage & disruption.

🔆 Prelims Practice
Q. With reference to Western Disturbances, consider the following:
1. They originate in the Bay of Bengal and move westward.
2. They are embedded in the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream.
3. They are crucial for Rabi crops in northwestern India.

Which of the above is/are correct?
(a) 1 & 2 only
(b) 2 & 3 only
(c) 1 & 3 only
(d) 1, 2 & 3
👉 Answer: (b)

🔆 Mains Practice
Q. Examine the role of Western Disturbances in shaping the winter climate of India. Discuss their significance for agriculture and the associated risks. (150 words)

#Climatology #Geographyoptional
#geography #mains #GS1

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🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS — 20 DEC 2025

🔆 BANKING
📍 Pension Reforms (NPS)
✅ Lump-sum withdrawal ↑ 60% → 80% (private subscribers)
✅ Mandatory annuity ↓ 40% → 20%
✅ NPS accounts allowed as loan collateral
✅ Exit age extended to 85 years

🔆 ECONOMY / STATES
📍 State Finances
✅ 11 states projected Debt–GSDP ≥ 35% (FY26)
✅ Highest: Arunachal Pradesh | Lowest: Odisha
✅ Borrowing monitored under FRBM framework

🔆 INTERNATIONAL
📍 Corporate Rankings
✅ NVIDIA tops Hurun Global 1000 (2025)
✅ Market cap: $4.6 trillion
📍 BRICS
✅ Brazil hands over BRICS Presidency to India
✅ India to lead BRICS in 2026

🔆 NATIONAL

📍 Maritime Infrastructure
✅ Centre clears ₹887 cr Mumbai Marina Project
✅ Capacity: 424 yachts | Location: Mumbai Harbour

📍 Postal Services
✅ J&K’s first Gen Z Post Office opened at AIIMS Vijaypur

📍 Visa Reforms
✅ DPIIT launches e-B-4 Visa digital module
✅ Enables online sponsorship letters for foreign professionals

📍 Wildlife & Conservation
✅ Bannerghatta Biological Park imports 8 capuchin monkeys from South Africa

📍 AI & Governance
✅ Odisha to host Regional AI Impact Conference (19–20 Dec)
✅ Focus: responsible & inclusive AI adoption

🔆 DEFENCE
📍 Military Exercise
✅ IAF hosts Exercise AviaIndra-2025 with Russia
✅ Dates: 15–22 Dec 2025

🔆 MoUs
📍 Defence Cooperation
✅ India–Netherlands reaffirm defence partnership
✅ Focus on co-development & co-production

🔆 SCHEMES
📍 Lakhpati Didi Initiative
✅ Under DAY–NRLM
✅ Targets SHG women earning ₹1 lakh+ annually
✅ Funded through NRLM + bank linkage

📍 PM Awas Yojana
✅ Govt approves 3 crore additional houses
✅ Covers PMAY-Urban & PMAY-Gramin

🔆 IMPORTANT DAY
📍 Goa Liberation Day
✅ Observed on 19 December

🔆 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
📍 Medical Research
✅ INST Mohali develops nanoparticle-based therapy pathway for Alzheimer’s
📍 Healthcare Training
✅ AIIMS conducts India’s first DBS workshop for Parkinson’s & movement disorders

🔆 SPORTS
📍 Cricket
✅ Jharkhand wins maiden Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2025
✅ Final win vs Haryana
✅ Records highest-ever T20 final total

#CurrentAffairs

🔆 Types of Buddhist Stupas

✅ Sharirika Stupas
✅ Enshrine relics or mortal remains of the Buddha or eminent monks
✅ Example: Sariputra & Maudgalyayana stupas at Sanchi

✅ Paribhogika Stupas
✅ Contain objects personally used by the Buddha or Buddhist saints
✅ Preserve personal associations and legacy

✅ Uddeshika Stupas
✅ Built purely for worship (puja) and devotion (aradhana)
✅ Symbolic representation of the Buddha

#prelims
#art_and_culture

https://t.me/Studytoday1
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🔆 Prominent Ashokan Pillars (Mauryan Art & Administration)

✅ Delhi–Topra Ashokan Pillar

✅ Originally erected at Topra (Haryana) during Ashoka’s reign
✅ Shifted to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq (14th century)
✅ Inscriptions promote Dhamma
✅ Unique references to:
✅ Taxation policies
✅ Administrative measures
✅ Welfare activities (tree planting, public good)
✅ Mentions Jains, showing religious tolerance

✅ Prayagraj (Allahabad) Ashokan Pillar

✅ Located at Ganga–Yamuna confluence
✅ Contains edicts on governance and Dhamma
✅ Mentions Ashoka’s queen Karuvaki
✅ Highlights her charitable and Dhamma-related contributions

#prelims
#art_and_culture

https://t.me/Studytoday1
https://t.me/upsc_art_and_culture

🔆 Impacts of Separatist Movements in India
(GS-3 | Internal Security)

📍 1. Undermining State Sovereignty
✅ Challenges national unity & political legitimacy.
✅ Paul Staniland’s “Insurgent Cohesion” → fragmented groups still sustain instability.
📌 Eg: Prolonged AFSPA in J&K; Naga Framework Agreement (2015–ongoing) remains unresolved.

📍 2. Governance Paralysis
✅ Resources diverted to counter-insurgency, delaying reforms.
✅ Relative Deprivation Theory: Neglect → alienation.
📌 Eg: Delayed J&K statehood restoration post-2019.

📍 3. Fractured Social Cohesion
✅ Ethnic nationalism deepens inter-group mistrust.
✅ Ashutosh Varshney’s “Ethnic Conflict” → loss of civic harmony.
📌 Eg: Meitei–Kuki violence (Manipur, 2023) displacing 60,000+.

📍 4. Youth Radicalisation
✅ Digital propaganda fuels “new-age militancy.”
✅ Happymon Jacob: Unchecked radicalisation in J&K perpetuates cycles of violence.
📌 Eg: Hizbul Mujahideen recruitment (2016–20); Pro-Khalistan online drives (2024).

📍 5. Economic Stagnation
✅ Insurgency disrupts trade, tourism, and jobs → rising unemployment.
📌 Eg: Kashmir tourism slump (post-2016); ULFA unrest hit Assam’s industries.

📍 6. Resource Diversion
✅ Counter-terror spending cuts funds for welfare.
✅ Ajai Sahni’s “Conflict Economy” – underdevelopment sustains unrest.
📌 Eg: High CAPF costs in Red Corridor restrict tribal welfare schemes.


📍 7. Threat to Internal Security
✅ Cross-border terrorism, hybrid warfare, arms smuggling.
✅ Staniland’s “Networks of Rebellion” – external support sustains insurgency.
📌 Eg: Pulwama attack (2019); NSCN-K cross-border ops (Nagaland–Myanmar).

📍 8. Human Rights Challenges
✅ AFSPA-related excesses fuel resentment, global criticism.
✅ Sanjib Baruah: “State violence” feeds insurgency.
📌 Eg: Manipur AFSPA protests (2004); Operation Bluebird (1987, Nagaland).

Way Forward
✅ Inclusive governance & decentralisation to address grievances.
✅ Smart counter-insurgency + rehabilitation for youth.
✅ Balanced approach: Development + Dialogue + Democratic inclusion.

Scholarly Linkages:
Paul Staniland | Ashutosh Varshney | Ajai Sahni | Sanjib Baruah | Happymon Jacob

In essence:
Separatist movements erode unity, governance, economy, and security. Only a holistic strategy combining peace, participation, and progress can ensure long-term stability.

#GS3 #mains

🔆 Exercise Desert Cyclone–II

✅ What: India–UAE Joint Military Exercise
✅ Where: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

✅ Participants:
✅ Indian Army
✅ UAE Land Forces

✅ Aim:
✅ Enhance interoperability
✅ Strengthen bilateral defence cooperation

✅ Operational Focus:
✅ Sub-conventional operations under UN mandate
✅ Peacekeeping operations
✅ Counter-terrorism
✅ Stability & joint deployment scenarios

📌 UPSC Link: GS3 – Defence & Security | International Relations
#cse #Security

https://t.me/internal_security_upsc_MAINS

🔆 Renewables Surpass Coal Globally (Ember Report 2025)

✅ Milestone: In H1 2025, renewable energy became the largest global power source, overtaking coal.
✅ Fossil Fuel Decline: China & India saw reduced fossil generation as clean power met demand growth.
✅ Emissions: Despite a 2.6% rise in power demand, emissions fell — China (-46 MtCO₂), India (-24 MtCO₂); rose in EU & US.
✅ Clean Energy Surge: Solar (+25%) and Wind (+29%) achieved record expansion.

#Environment #cse

⚖️ Human Rights Abuse in India

📰 Context
✅ NHRC Meeting: Organized a Statutory Full Commission meeting with seven National Commissions to enhance human rights protection.
✅ HRR 2023: The U.S. State Department’s Human Rights Report flagged over a dozen credible human rights abuses in India.
✅ New Chairperson: Justice (Retd.) V. Ramasubramanian appointed as the NHRC Chairperson.

📜 Human Rights in Constitution
✅ Articles 14-32: Fundamental Rights ensuring life, liberty, and equality.
✅ Articles 36-51: Directive Principles inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

🏛 National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
✅ Established: October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993.
✅ Role: A statutory body acting as a human rights watchdog, safeguarding civilian interests.
✅ Definition: As per Section 2(1)(d) of PHRA, rights include life, liberty, equality, and dignity, enforceable by courts.

👥 Structure and Composition
✅ Chairperson: Retired Chief Justice of India or Supreme Court Judge.
✅ Full-Time Members:
A retired/current Supreme Court Judge.
A retired/current High Court Chief Justice.
Three experts in human rights (at least one woman).
✅ Deemed Members: Heads of commissions for SC, ST, Minorities, OBC, Women, Child Rights, and Chief Commissioner for Disabilities.

✍️ Appointment Process
✅ Appointed By: President of India on the recommendation of a Selection Committee:
Prime Minister (Chairperson).
Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Union Home Minister.
Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
Leaders of Opposition in both Houses.

✅ Tenure: 3 years or up to 70 years, whichever is earlier.
✅ Removal: By the President, for misconduct or incapacity after consulting the Supreme Court.

🌍 Significance of NHRC
✅ Judicial Powers: Functions as a civil court to investigate human rights violations.
✅ Global Alignment: Works in conformity with 1991 Paris Principles for the promotion of human rights.
✅ Safeguards Rights: Protects life, liberty, and dignity in accordance with constitutional and international standards.

#polity

https://t.me/upsc_polity_Governance

Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary in Haryana is a human-made wetland and a key stopover on the western migratory route, supporting thousands of resident and migratory birds.

A key freshwater wetland in Goa, Nanda supports migratory birds, agriculture and local communities while reducing flood risks

https://t.me/Upsc_4_environment

🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS — 22 DEC 2025

🔆 REGULATORY / RBI

📍 620th Meeting of RBI Central Board
✅ RBI approves Risk-Based Deposit Insurance Framework
✅ Venue: Hyderabad
✅ Chair: Sanjay Malhotra (RBI Governor)

📍 Key Decisions
✅ Review of global & domestic economic situation
✅ Examination of select RBI departments
✅ Draft reviewed: Trend & Progress of Banking in India 2024–25

📍 Risk-Based Deposit Insurance
✅ Banks assessed on:
• Financial health
• Asset quality
• Risk management
• Overall stability
✅ Insurance contribution linked to risk profile
✅ Deposit protection for customers unchanged

📍 Significance
✅ Discourages reckless lending
✅ Improves systemic stability
✅ Aligns with global best practices

🔆 INTERNATIONAL

📍 Space & Inclusion
✅ Michaela Benthaus to become first wheelchair user in space
✅ Mission: Blue Origin – New Shepard NS-37

📍 Multilateral Diplomacy
✅ India participates in 11th UNAOC Forum, Riyadh
✅ Reiterates Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam & religious harmony

🔆 NATIONAL

📍 Health
✅ PM Modi & WHO Chief inaugurate WHO SEARO Office in Delhi
✅ Cost: USD 35 million
✅ Replaces old WHO House (1960s)

📍 Exports
✅ GI-tagged Indi Lime (Karnataka) exported to Oman
✅ First international shipment (3 MT)

📍 Maritime Security
✅ Centre to establish Statutory Bureau of Port Security (BoPS)
✅ Under Merchant Shipping Act, 2025
✅ CISF designated security organisation for ports

🔆 INFRASTRUCTURE
📍 Iconic Bridges of India
✅ Atal Setu (MTHL) – India’s longest sea bridge
✅ Chenab Bridge – world’s highest railway arch bridge
✅ New Pamban Bridge – India’s first vertical lift rail bridge
✅ Dhola–Sadiya Bridge – strategic border connectivity
✅ Anji Khad Bridge – India’s first cable-stayed rail bridge

🔆 URBAN GOVERNANCE
📍 Swachh Survekshan 2025 (10th Edition)
✅ Toolkit launched in Bhopal
✅ Theme: Swachhata Ki Nayi Pehel
✅ Focus: Garbage Free Cities

🔆 DEFENCE
📍 QUAD Cooperation
✅ QUAD conducts 1st Field Training Exercise (FTX)
✅ Venue: Andersen AFB, Guam
✅ Framework: Indo-Pacific Logistics Network
✅ Linked to Operation Christmas Drop

🔆 POLICY / SECURITY
📍 Agniveer Reservation
✅ Govt raises CAPF reservation to 50% for ex-Agniveers
✅ Begins with BSF
✅ PST & PET exempted; written exam mandatory

🔆 MoUs
📍 Infrastructure Safety
✅ MoRTH + IIT Patna MoU
✅ Focus: tunnel safety & hill-slope protection

🔆 STATES
📍 Madhya Pradesh
✅ MP to develop India’s first State-level Multi-National Park Tiger Corridor
✅ Integrates wildlife conservation with road infrastructure

🔆 SCHEMES

📍 BHASHINI @ Maha Kumbh 2025
✅ Multilingual digital access in 11 Indian languages
✅ AI chatbot Kumbh Sah’AI’yak launched

📍 PM SVANidhi (Restructured)
✅ Extended till 31 March 2030
✅ Outlay: ₹7,332 cr
✅ Enhanced loan limits + digital cashback
✅ Target: 1.15 crore street vendors

🔆 IMPORTANT DAYS
📍 20 December
✅ SSB Raising Day (62nd)
✅ International Human Solidarity Day
• Theme: Solidarity for Sustainable Development

🔆 APPOINTMENTS
✅ Barham Salih elected UNHCR High Commissioner

🔆 AWARDS
📍 Global Innovation
✅ Indian team Photonics Odyssey wins top honour at NASA Space Apps Challenge

#CurrentAffairs

https://t.me/CurrentAffairs_ONLY