🔆 Rise & Fall of Harappan Civilization

📍 Rise (First Urbanisation in India)
✅ Agricultural surplus: Fertile Indus plains → wheat & barley
✅ Granaries at Mohenjo-daro supported artisans & traders
✅ Tech & craft specialization:
✅ Bronze metallurgy
✅ Bead-making (Chanhudaro)
✅ Mass pottery (potter’s wheel)
✅ Trade networks:
✅ Dockyard at Lothal
✅ Uniform seals & weights
✅ Trade with Mesopotamia
✅ Strong urban planning:
✅ Grid-pattern cities
✅ Standardized bricks
✅ Great Bath & advanced drainage

📍 Fall (c. 1900 BCE – Gradual De-urbanisation)
✅ Climate change: Drier climate, weak monsoon
✅ Drying of Ghaggar–Hakra (Saraswati)
✅ Ecological disasters: Floods & tectonic shifts
✅ River course changes at Mohenjo-daro
✅ Economic decline:
✅ Reduced surplus
✅ Decline in Mesopotamian trade
✅ Migration & de-urbanisation:
✅ Movement towards Gangetic plains & Gujarat
✅ Rural, dispersed Late Harappan settlements

#history #prelims #mains

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#Goodmorning 

⏳155 days  left CSP26 [ 24-05-26]
⏳244 days left CSM26 [ 21-08-26]

⏳211 days left CAPF AC 19 July
⏳163 days  left MPSC (MH) prelims [ 31-05-26]
⏳129 io days Left MPPSC (MP) Prelims
⏳114 days Left CDS1 /NDA 12 April
⏳66 days CGPSC prelims 22 February

#Target
#TargetOnlyone
#Accountability

SSC CGL Mains - 18 Jan 2026
Skill Test On - 19 Jan 2026

🔆 CDSCO

📍 Current Update
✅ CDSCO has mandated QR codes + toll-free numbers at all pharmacies for reporting adverse drug reactions (ADRs).

📍 About CDSCO
✅ HQ: New Delhi
✅ Statutory authority under the Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940
✅ Under Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

📍 Key Functions
✅ Regulates import of drugs
✅ Approves new drugs
✅ Oversees clinical trials
✅ Ensures drug safety, standards & quality control

#prelims #GS3
#science_and_technology
#science_technology

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#cse

🔆 Geoengineering Projects & Their Challenges

📍 1️⃣ Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)
✅ Releases aerosols (SO₂, CaCO₃) to reflect sunlight & cool the Earth.
⚠️ Challenges: Termination shock, ineffectiveness in polar winters/summers.

📍 2️⃣ Sea Curtains / Sea Walls
✅ Buoyant barriers prevent warm ocean water from melting polar ice.
⚠️ Challenges: Marine disruption, toxicity, and impact on ocean circulation.

📍 3️⃣ Sea Ice Management
✅ Scattering microbeads or pumping seawater to thicken sea ice.
⚠️ Challenges: Ecotoxicity to marine life, counterproductive warming.

📍 4️⃣ Basal Water Removal
✅ Removes subglacial water to slow ice loss and sea-level rise.
⚠️ Challenge: Highly emission-intensive and costly to maintain.

📍 5️⃣ Ocean Fertilisation (OF)
✅ Adds nutrients to boost phytoplankton and absorb CO₂.
⚠️ Challenges: Ecosystem disruption, nutrient depletion, algal blooms.

#environment

🔆 Major Buddhist Sites in India

📍 Mahabodhi Temple – Bihar
✅ Site of Buddha’s Enlightenment (Bodhi)
✅ Built by Ashoka; rebuilt in Gupta period
✅ Current structure: 5th–6th century CE

📍 Sravasti – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Capital of Kosala Mahajanapada
✅ Buddha spent 24 years preaching
✅ Stupas, monasteries, temples

📍 Kushinagar – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Site of Mahaparinirvana
✅ Ramabhar Stupa (cremation site)
✅ Mahanirvana Temple (reclining Buddha)

📍 Kapilavastu – Uttar Pradesh
✅ Birthplace of Lord Buddha
✅ Stupas & relic caskets
✅ Kushana inscriptions (Kanishka)

📍 Ajanta Caves – Maharashtra
✅ 30 rock-cut Buddhist caves
✅ Jataka tales & murals
✅ 2nd century BCE – 5th century CE

📍 Ellora Caves – Maharashtra
✅ Buddhist, Hindu & Jain caves
✅ 600–1000 CE
✅ Ancient name: Elapura

📍 Pitalkhora Caves – Maharashtra
✅ Early rock-cut caves (2nd century BCE)
✅ Chaityas & Viharas
✅ Hinayana with later Mahayana murals

📍 Sirpur – Chhattisgarh
✅ Buddhist–Hindu–Jain centre
✅ On Mahanadi river
✅ Visited by Hiuen Tsang

📍 Ratnagiri – Odisha
✅ Part of Diamond Triangle
✅ Mahavihara (5th century CE)
✅ Giant Buddha with Padmapani & Vajrapani

📍 Lalitgiri – Odisha
✅ Oldest Buddhist complex in Odisha
✅ Linked to Puspagiri University

#prelims
#art_and_culture

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Week 1 short notes pdf

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🔆 Western Disturbances

📍 Definition
✅ Eastward-moving extra-tropical weather systems bringing sudden winter rainfall to northwestern India.
✅ Originate beyond Iran & Afghanistan, travel via Pakistan before reaching India.

📍 Origin & Characteristics
✅ Driven by low-pressure systems formed by interaction of polar & tropical air masses.
✅ Moisture source: Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, sometimes Arabian Sea.
✅ Embedded in Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJ) flowing west → east over Himalayas & Tibetan Plateau.

📍 Seasonal Occurrence
✅ Most active in winter (Dec–Mar).
✅ Can also affect pre-monsoon & post-monsoon weather.

📍 Geographical Impact
✅ Influence weather in NW India, N. Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan.
✅ In India → rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, HP, Uttarakhand, UP (parts).
✅ Cause snowfall in Himalayas & cold wave in plains.

📍 Importance for Agriculture
✅ Crucial for Rabi crops (esp. wheat).
✅ Excess/unseasonal rains → crop damage & disruption.

🔆 Prelims Practice
Q. With reference to Western Disturbances, consider the following:
1. They originate in the Bay of Bengal and move westward.
2. They are embedded in the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream.
3. They are crucial for Rabi crops in northwestern India.

Which of the above is/are correct?
(a) 1 & 2 only
(b) 2 & 3 only
(c) 1 & 3 only
(d) 1, 2 & 3
👉 Answer: (b)

🔆 Mains Practice
Q. Examine the role of Western Disturbances in shaping the winter climate of India. Discuss their significance for agriculture and the associated risks. (150 words)

#Climatology #Geographyoptional
#geography #mains #GS1

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🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS — 20 DEC 2025

🔆 BANKING
📍 Pension Reforms (NPS)
✅ Lump-sum withdrawal ↑ 60% → 80% (private subscribers)
✅ Mandatory annuity ↓ 40% → 20%
✅ NPS accounts allowed as loan collateral
✅ Exit age extended to 85 years

🔆 ECONOMY / STATES
📍 State Finances
✅ 11 states projected Debt–GSDP ≥ 35% (FY26)
✅ Highest: Arunachal Pradesh | Lowest: Odisha
✅ Borrowing monitored under FRBM framework

🔆 INTERNATIONAL
📍 Corporate Rankings
✅ NVIDIA tops Hurun Global 1000 (2025)
✅ Market cap: $4.6 trillion
📍 BRICS
✅ Brazil hands over BRICS Presidency to India
✅ India to lead BRICS in 2026

🔆 NATIONAL

📍 Maritime Infrastructure
✅ Centre clears ₹887 cr Mumbai Marina Project
✅ Capacity: 424 yachts | Location: Mumbai Harbour

📍 Postal Services
✅ J&K’s first Gen Z Post Office opened at AIIMS Vijaypur

📍 Visa Reforms
✅ DPIIT launches e-B-4 Visa digital module
✅ Enables online sponsorship letters for foreign professionals

📍 Wildlife & Conservation
✅ Bannerghatta Biological Park imports 8 capuchin monkeys from South Africa

📍 AI & Governance
✅ Odisha to host Regional AI Impact Conference (19–20 Dec)
✅ Focus: responsible & inclusive AI adoption

🔆 DEFENCE
📍 Military Exercise
✅ IAF hosts Exercise AviaIndra-2025 with Russia
✅ Dates: 15–22 Dec 2025

🔆 MoUs
📍 Defence Cooperation
✅ India–Netherlands reaffirm defence partnership
✅ Focus on co-development & co-production

🔆 SCHEMES
📍 Lakhpati Didi Initiative
✅ Under DAY–NRLM
✅ Targets SHG women earning ₹1 lakh+ annually
✅ Funded through NRLM + bank linkage

📍 PM Awas Yojana
✅ Govt approves 3 crore additional houses
✅ Covers PMAY-Urban & PMAY-Gramin

🔆 IMPORTANT DAY
📍 Goa Liberation Day
✅ Observed on 19 December

🔆 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
📍 Medical Research
✅ INST Mohali develops nanoparticle-based therapy pathway for Alzheimer’s
📍 Healthcare Training
✅ AIIMS conducts India’s first DBS workshop for Parkinson’s & movement disorders

🔆 SPORTS
📍 Cricket
✅ Jharkhand wins maiden Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2025
✅ Final win vs Haryana
✅ Records highest-ever T20 final total

#CurrentAffairs

🔆 Types of Buddhist Stupas

✅ Sharirika Stupas
✅ Enshrine relics or mortal remains of the Buddha or eminent monks
✅ Example: Sariputra & Maudgalyayana stupas at Sanchi

✅ Paribhogika Stupas
✅ Contain objects personally used by the Buddha or Buddhist saints
✅ Preserve personal associations and legacy

✅ Uddeshika Stupas
✅ Built purely for worship (puja) and devotion (aradhana)
✅ Symbolic representation of the Buddha

#prelims
#art_and_culture

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🔆 Prominent Ashokan Pillars (Mauryan Art & Administration)

✅ Delhi–Topra Ashokan Pillar

✅ Originally erected at Topra (Haryana) during Ashoka’s reign
✅ Shifted to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq (14th century)
✅ Inscriptions promote Dhamma
✅ Unique references to:
✅ Taxation policies
✅ Administrative measures
✅ Welfare activities (tree planting, public good)
✅ Mentions Jains, showing religious tolerance

✅ Prayagraj (Allahabad) Ashokan Pillar

✅ Located at Ganga–Yamuna confluence
✅ Contains edicts on governance and Dhamma
✅ Mentions Ashoka’s queen Karuvaki
✅ Highlights her charitable and Dhamma-related contributions

#prelims
#art_and_culture

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🔆 Impacts of Separatist Movements in India
(GS-3 | Internal Security)

📍 1. Undermining State Sovereignty
✅ Challenges national unity & political legitimacy.
✅ Paul Staniland’s “Insurgent Cohesion” → fragmented groups still sustain instability.
📌 Eg: Prolonged AFSPA in J&K; Naga Framework Agreement (2015–ongoing) remains unresolved.

📍 2. Governance Paralysis
✅ Resources diverted to counter-insurgency, delaying reforms.
✅ Relative Deprivation Theory: Neglect → alienation.
📌 Eg: Delayed J&K statehood restoration post-2019.

📍 3. Fractured Social Cohesion
✅ Ethnic nationalism deepens inter-group mistrust.
✅ Ashutosh Varshney’s “Ethnic Conflict” → loss of civic harmony.
📌 Eg: Meitei–Kuki violence (Manipur, 2023) displacing 60,000+.

📍 4. Youth Radicalisation
✅ Digital propaganda fuels “new-age militancy.”
✅ Happymon Jacob: Unchecked radicalisation in J&K perpetuates cycles of violence.
📌 Eg: Hizbul Mujahideen recruitment (2016–20); Pro-Khalistan online drives (2024).

📍 5. Economic Stagnation
✅ Insurgency disrupts trade, tourism, and jobs → rising unemployment.
📌 Eg: Kashmir tourism slump (post-2016); ULFA unrest hit Assam’s industries.

📍 6. Resource Diversion
✅ Counter-terror spending cuts funds for welfare.
✅ Ajai Sahni’s “Conflict Economy” – underdevelopment sustains unrest.
📌 Eg: High CAPF costs in Red Corridor restrict tribal welfare schemes.


📍 7. Threat to Internal Security
✅ Cross-border terrorism, hybrid warfare, arms smuggling.
✅ Staniland’s “Networks of Rebellion” – external support sustains insurgency.
📌 Eg: Pulwama attack (2019); NSCN-K cross-border ops (Nagaland–Myanmar).

📍 8. Human Rights Challenges
✅ AFSPA-related excesses fuel resentment, global criticism.
✅ Sanjib Baruah: “State violence” feeds insurgency.
📌 Eg: Manipur AFSPA protests (2004); Operation Bluebird (1987, Nagaland).

Way Forward
✅ Inclusive governance & decentralisation to address grievances.
✅ Smart counter-insurgency + rehabilitation for youth.
✅ Balanced approach: Development + Dialogue + Democratic inclusion.

Scholarly Linkages:
Paul Staniland | Ashutosh Varshney | Ajai Sahni | Sanjib Baruah | Happymon Jacob

In essence:
Separatist movements erode unity, governance, economy, and security. Only a holistic strategy combining peace, participation, and progress can ensure long-term stability.

#GS3 #mains