INTERGALACTIC TRAVEL

​​How do we measure the distances to things in space?

There are a few primary methods used to measure distances to objects in space:

Parallax:For relatively nearby objects within our own galaxy, we can use the parallax effect. This involves measuring the apparent shift in position of an object against the background as observed from two different locations (such as the Earth at different times of the year). The degree of parallax shift is inversely proportional to the distance.

Redshift:For distant galaxies and other extragalactic objects, we can use the redshift of their light to estimate their distance. As objects move away from us, their light is shifted towards longer, redder wavelengths, and the degree of redshift is proportional to the recession velocity, which is in turn related to the distance via Hubble's law.

Standard Candles: Astronomers can use "standard candles" - objects of known intrinsic brightness, like certain types of stars or supernovae. By comparing the observed brightness to the known intrinsic brightness, the distance can be calculated.

Time Delay: For extremely distant objects like quasars, astronomers can measure the time delay between the arrival of light from different parts of the object. This time delay is related to the size of the object and its distance.

Radar Ranging: For objects within our solar system, like planets and asteroids, we can use radar to bounce radio signals off them and measure the time of flight to calculate the distance.

The choice of method depends on the type of object and how far away it is. Combining multiple techniques can provide more robust distance measurements for astronomical objects. As our observational capabilities have improved, we've been able to measure distances to increasingly remote parts of the universe.

Astronomers calculate the rotation period of celestial objects like stars, planets, and moons using various methods, depending on the type of object and the available observations. Here’s a general overview of the techniques:

For Solid Objects (Rocky Planets and Asteroids):

Sidereal Rotation Period: This is the time it takes for the object to complete one full rotation around its axis relative to distant stars. It’s measured by observing the object over time and noting the position of surface features or using the Doppler effect on the object’s emitted or reflected light.

For Gaseous or Fluid Bodies (Stars and Gas Giants):

Differential Rotation: These objects can have different rotation rates at their equator compared to their poles. The rotation period is often determined from the rotation of the planet’s magnetic field, which can be inferred from radio emissions or cloud tracking methods.

Synodic Rotation Period: This differs from the sidereal period as it accounts for the object’s orbital period around another body, like a star or planet. It’s the time between successive alignments with the Sun and the Earth, for example.

For Stars Specifically:

Spectroscopy: The rate of rotation can be measured from the star’s spectrum. The broadening of spectral lines can indicate how fast the star is spinning.

Star Spots: Similar to sunspots on the Sun, star spots can be tracked across the star’s surface to determine the rotation period.

For Moons:

Spin-Orbit Locking: Some moons, like Earth’s Moon, have synchronous rotation, meaning their orbital period is the same as their rotation period. This is determined by observing the time it takes for the same side of the moon to face the planet again.
These methods can be complex and require careful observation and analysis. For instance, the rotation period of gas giants is particularly challenging to measure due to their lack of solid surfaces and the phenomenon of differential rotation.

In all cases, the rotation period is a fundamental property that can tell us much about the object’s structure, formation, and evolution. It’s one of the many fascinating aspects of astronomy that scientists continue to study and refine with advancing technology and methods.

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In 2015, a pair of astronomers at Caltech found several objects bunched together beyond Neptune's orbit, near the edge of the solar system. The bunching, they theorized, was due to the pull of gravity from an unknown planet—one that later came to be called Planet 9. Since that time, researchers have found more evidence of the planet, all of it circumstantial. In this new paper, the research team reports what they describe as additional evidence supporting the existence of the planet.

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