🟢How playing an instrument benefits your brain?

How many times does the chorus repeat in your favorite song? And, take a moment to think, how many times have you listened to it? Chances are you've heard that chorus repeated dozens, if not hundreds, of times, and it's not just popular songs in the West that repeat a lot. Repetition is a feature that music from cultures around the world tends to share. So, why does music rely so heavily on repetition? One part of the answer come from what psychologists call the mere-exposure effect. In short, people tend to prefer things they've been exposed to before. For example, a song comes on the radio that we don't particularly like, but then we hear the song at the grocery store, at the movie theater and again on the street corner. Soon, we are tapping to the beat, singing the words, even downloading the track. This mere-exposure effect doesn't just work for songs. It also works for everything from shapes to Super Bowl ads. So, what makes repetition so uniquely prevalent in music? To investigate, psychologists asked people to listen to musical compositions that avoided exact repetition. They heard excerpts from these pieces in either their original form, or in a version that had been digitally altered to include repetition. Although the original versions had been composed by some of the most respected 20th century composers, and the repetitive versions had been assembled by brute force audio editing, people rated the repetitive versions as more enjoyable, more interesting and more likely to have been composed by a human artist. Musical repetition is deeply compelling. Think about the Muppets classic, "Mahna Mahna." If you've heard it before, it's almost impossible after I sing, "Mahna mahna," not to respond, "Do doo do do do." Repetition connects each bit of music irresistibly to the next bit of music that follows it. So when you hear a few notes, you're already imagining what's coming next. Your mind is unconsciously singing along, and without noticing, you might start humming out loud. Recent studies have shown that when people hear a segment of music repeated, they are more likely to move or tap along to it. Repetition invites us into music as imagined participants, rather than as passive listeners. Research has also shown that listeners shift their attention across musical repetitions, focusing on different aspects of the sound on each new listen.

You might notice the melody of a phrase the first time, but when it's repeated, your attention shifts to how the guitarist bends a pitch. This also occurs in language, with something called semantic satiation. Repeating a word like atlas ad nauseam can make you stop thinking about what the word means, and instead focus on the sounds: the odd way the "L" follows the "T." In this way, repetition can open up new worlds of sound not accessible on first hearing. The "L" following the "T" might not be aesthetically relevant to "atlas," but the guitarist pitch bending might be of critical expressive importance. The speech to song illusion captures how simply repeating a sentence a number of times shifts listeners attention to the pitch and temporal aspects of the sound, so that the repeated spoken language actually begins to sound like it is being sung. A similar effect happens with random sequences of sound. People will rate random sequences they've heard on repeated loop as more musical than a random sequence they've only heard once. Repetition gives rise to a kind of orientation to sound that we think of as distinctively musical, where we're listening along with the sound, engaging imaginatively with the note about to happen. This mode of listening ties in with our susceptibility to musical ear worms, where segments of music burrow into our head, and play again and again, as if stuck on repeat. Critics are often embarrassed by music's repetitiveness, finding it childish or regressive, but repetition, far from an embarrassment, is actually a key feature that gives rise to the kind of experience we think about as musical.

#TED_Ed #Music #Brain #Creativity #Entertainment #Education #Animation #Psychology

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🟢Why you should shop at your local farmers market?

#Farming #Agriculture #Food #Future #Environment #Business #Sustainability

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🟢Why you should shop at your local farmers market?

It's been about a decade since the last financial crisis, yet this industry has never been bigger. Legislation that was meant to better regulate its largest players has hurt its smaller ones, resulting in most of the industry's assets to be controlled by the top one percent. They've become too big to fail. I'm not referring to big banks, but the world of Big Agriculture.
As a public health practitioner who has worked with small-scale farmers in Rwanda and now as a small food business owner who sits at the intersection between our consumers and producers, I've been exposed to one of the most ecologically and economically intensive industries in the world, and throughout my work, I've witnessed a chilling irony. Our farmers, who feed our communities, cannot afford the very foods they grow. Today, a handful of corporations continue to consolidate the entire food supply chain, from the intellectual property of seeds to produce and livestock all the way to the financial institutions who lend to these farmers. And the recent results have been rising bankruptcies for family farms and little control for those who are just trying to survive in the industry. Left unchecked, we will head into another economic collapse, one very similar to the farm crisis of the 1980s, when commodity market prices crashed, interest rates doubled, and many farmers lost everything.
Fortunately, there's a very simple, three-part solution you can be part of right now to help us transform our food industry from the bottom up.
Step one: shop at your local farmers markets.
Buying from your local market and subscribing to a community-supported agricultural produce box, better known as a CSA, may be the single greatest purchasing decision you can make as a consumer today. Last year, American farmers made the least they have in almost three decades, because they now own fewer parts of the supply chain than ever before. Under exclusive contracts with Big Ag and big box stores, farmers are not offered a fair price for their goods. In fact, the average farmer in America makes less than 15 cents of every dollar on a product that you purchase at a store. On the other hand, farmers who sell their goods at a farmers market take home closer to 90 cents of every dollar. But beyond taking home a larger share, farmers use markets as an opportunity to cultivate the next generation of agriculturalists who shepherd our farmlands and our pastures. In our fight against climate change, we need them now more than ever to promote and preserve diverse land use.
When multigenerational farms are lost to Big Ag consolidation, our communities suffer in countless ways. Rural America has now jumped above the national average in violent crime. Three out four farmworkers surveyed have been directly impacted by our opioid epidemic. Now oftentimes disguised as accidents, farmer suicide is now on the rise.
Step two: shop at your local farmers markets.
Produce from a large retail store is harvested before it's ripe to travel more than a thousand miles before it ultimately sits on your shelf roughly two weeks later. Alternatively, because most farmers markets have proximity and production requirements, farmers travel less than 50 miles to offer you local produce with minimal packaging waste. With the advent of online grocers and trending meal kits, consumers are increasingly disconnected with their farmers and the economics of food production. Since the rise of the smartphone revolution, direct-to-consumer goods have stagnated.

While local and sustainable foods have been trending for almost a decade, terms like "healthy" and "natural" have no legal framework in the United States. Your best bet for fresh, nutrient-rich foods without the marketing jargon? Go to your farmers market. Buying local is not a new idea, but turning it into a habit in today's world still is. If we want to avoid the high costs of cheap food, protect our environment, rebuild our communities and save our farmers -- literally -- we're going to need to vote with our food purchases. The success of our food systems is directly attached to us. If we want to break up Big Ag's hold on our food supply chain, then we're going to need to connect with our farmers. We're going to need to rebuild relationships with the hands that feed us three times a day. Plus, two more for snacks. Come on.
With a government online database of more than 8,600 farmers markets across the country, you can easily find the nearest one to you. Just think of yourself as an investor in food, where your purchasing power helps create a more equitable society for everyone. Oh!
Almost forgot step three, which may surprise you: shop at your local farmers markets.
Thank you.

#Farming #Agriculture #Food #Future #Environment #Business #Sustainability

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🟢8 secrets of success

#Culture #Business #Entertainment #Psychology #Happiness #Success #Work

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🟢8 secrets of success

This is really a two-hour presentation I give to high school students, cut down to three minutes. And it all started one day on a plane, on my way to TED, seven years ago. And in the seat next to me was a high school student, a teenager, and she came from a really poor family. And she wanted to make something of her life, and she asked me a simple little question. She said, "What leads to success?" And I felt really badly, because I couldn't give her a good answer.
So I get off the plane, and I come to TED. And I think, jeez, I'm in the middle of a room of successful people! So why don't I ask them what helped them succeed, and pass it on to kids? So here we are, seven years, 500 interviews later, and I'm going to tell you what really leads to success and makes TEDsters tick.
And the first thing is passion. Freeman Thomas says, "I'm driven by my passion." TEDsters do it for love; they don't do it for money.
Carol Coletta says, "I would pay someone to do what I do." And the interesting thing is: if you do it for love, the money comes anyway.
Work! Rupert Murdoch said to me, "It's all hard work. Nothing comes easily. But I have a lot of fun." Did he say fun? Rupert? Yes!
TEDsters do have fun working. And they work hard. I figured, they're not workaholics. They're workafrolics.
Alex Garden says, "To be successful, put your nose down in something and get damn good at it." There's no magic; it's practice, practice, practice.
And it's focus. Norman Jewison said to me, "I think it all has to do with focusing yourself on one thing."
And push! David Gallo says, "Push yourself. Physically, mentally, you've got to push, push, push." You've got to push through shyness and self-doubt.
Goldie Hawn says, "I always had self-doubts. I wasn't good enough; I wasn't smart enough. I didn't think I'd make it."
Now it's not always easy to push yourself, and that's why they invented mothers.
(Applause) Frank Gehry said to me, "My mother pushed me."
Serve! Sherwin Nuland says, "It was a privilege to serve as a doctor."
A lot of kids want to be millionaires. The first thing I say is: "OK, well you can't serve yourself; you've got to serve others something of value. Because that's the way people really get rich."
Ideas! TEDster Bill Gates says, "I had an idea: founding the first micro-computer software company." I'd say it was a pretty good idea. And there's no magic to creativity in coming up with ideas -- it's just doing some very simple things. And I give lots of evidence.
Persist! Joe Kraus says, "Persistence is the number one reason for our success." You've got to persist through failure. You've got to persist through crap! Which of course means "Criticism, Rejection, Assholes and Pressure."
So, the answer to this question is simple: Pay 4,000 bucks and come to TED.
Or failing that, do the eight things -- and trust me, these are the big eight things that lead to success.
Thank you TEDsters for all your interviews!

#Culture #Business #Entertainment #Psychology #Happiness #Success #Work

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🟢Why The Octopus Brain Is So Extraordinary?

#Animals #Animation #TED_Ed #Brain #Biology #Evolution #Science #Ocean

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🟢Why The Octopus Brain Is So Extraordinary?

What could octopuses possibly have in common with us? After all, they don't have lungs, spines, or even a plural noun we can all agree on. But what they do have is the ability to solve puzzles, learn through observation, and even use tools, just like some other animals we know. And what makes octopus intelligence so amazing is that it comes from a biological structure completely different from ours. The 200 or so species of octopuses are mollusks belonging to the order cephalopoda, Greek for head-feet. Those heads contain impressively large brains, with a brain to body ratio similar to that of other intelligent animals, and a complex nervous system with about as many neurons as that of a dog. But instead of being centralized in the brain, these 500 million neurons are spread out in a network of interconnected ganglia organized into three basic structures. The central brain only contains about 10% of the neurons, while the two huge optic lobes contain about 30%. The other 60% are in the tentacles, which for humans would be like our arms having minds of their own. This is where things get even more interesting. Vertebrates like us have a rigid skeleton to support our bodies, with joints that allow us to move. But not all types of movement are allowed. You can't bend your knee backwards, or bend your forearm in the middle, for example. Cephalopods, on the other hand, have no bones at all, allowing them to bend their limbs at any point and in any direction. So shaping their tentacles into any one of the virtually limitless number of possible arrangements is unlike anything we are used to. Consider a simple task, like grabbing and eating an apple. The human brain contains a neurological map of our body. When you see the apple, your brain's motor center activates the appropriate muscles, allowing you to reach out with your arm, grab it with your hand, bend your elbow joint, and bring it to your mouth. For an octopus, the process is quite different. Rather than a body map, the cephalopod brain has a behavior library. So when an octopus sees food, its brain doesn't activate a specific body part, but rather a behavioral response to grab. As the signal travels through the network, the arm neurons pick up the message and jump into action to command the movement. As soon as the arm touches the food, a muscle activation wave travels all the way through the arm to its base, while the arm sends back another wave from the base to the tip. The signals meet halfway between the food and the base of the arm, letting it know to bend at that spot. What all this means is that each of an octopus's eight arms can essentially think for itself. This gives it amazing flexibility and creativity when facing a new situation or problem, whether its opening a bottle to reach food, escaping through a maze, moving around in a new environment, changing the texture and the color of its skin to blend into the scenery, or even mimicking other creatures to scare away enemies. Cephalopods may have evolved complex brains long before our vertebrate relatives. And octopus intelligence isn't just useful for octopuses. Their radically different nervous system and autonomously thinking appendages have inspired new research in developing flexible robots made of soft materials. And studying how intelligence can arise along such a divergent evolutionary path can help us understand more about intelligence and consciousness in general. Who knows what other forms of intelligent life are possible, or how they process the world around them.

#Animals #Animation #TED_Ed #Brain #Biology #Evolution #Science #Ocean

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🟢What happens when you remove the hippocampus?

#Consciousness #Brain #Memory #Medical_Research #Disease #Medicine #TED_Ed #Health_Care #Physiology #Human_Body #Healthcare #History #Science #Health #Animation #Surgery

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🟢What happens when you remove the hippocampus?

On September 1st, 1953, William Scoville used a hand crank and a cheap drill saw to bore into a young man's skull, cutting away vital pieces of his brain and sucking them out through a metal tube. But this wasn't a scene from a horror film or a gruesome police report. Dr. Scoville was one of the most renowned neurosurgeons of his time, and the young man was Henry Molaison, the famous patient known as "H.M.", whose case provided amazing insights into how our brains work. As a boy, Henry had cracked his skull in an accident and soon began having seizures, blacking out and losing control of bodily functions. After enduring years of frequent episodes, and even dropping out of high school, the desperate young man had turned to Dr. Scoville, a daredevil known for risky surgeries. Partial lobotomies had been used for decades to treat mental patients based on the notion that mental functions were strictly localized to corresponding brain areas. Having successfully used them to reduce seizures in psychotics, Scoville decided to remove H.M.'s hippocampus, a part of the limbic system that was associated with emotion but whose function was unknown. At first glance, the operation had succeeded. H.M.'s seizures virtually disappeared, with no change in personality, and his IQ even improved. But there was one problem: His memory was shot. Besides losing most of his memories from the previous decade, H.M. was unable to form new ones, forgetting what day it was, repeating comments, and even eating multiple meals in a row. When Scoville informed another expert, Wilder Penfield, of the results, he sent a Ph.D student named Brenda Milner to study H.M. at his parents' home, where he now spent his days doing odd chores, and watching classic movies for the first time, over and over. What she discovered through a series of tests and interviews didn't just contribute greatly to the study of memory. It redefined what memory even meant. One of Milner's findings shed light on the obvious fact that although H.M. couldn't form new memories, he still retained information long enough from moment to moment to finish a sentence or find the bathroom. When Milner gave him a random number, he managed to remember it for fifteen minutes by repeating it to himself constantly. But only five minutes later, he forgot the test had even taken place. Neuroscientists had though of memory as monolithic, all of it essentially the same and stored throughout the brain. Milner's results were not only the first clue for the now familiar distinction between short-term and long-term memory, but show that each uses different brain regions. We now know that memory formation involves several steps. After immediate sensory data is temporarily transcribed by neurons in the cortex, it travels to the hippocampus, where special proteins work to strengthen the cortical synaptic connections. If the experience was strong enough, or we recall it periodically in the first few days, the hippocampus then transfers the memory back to the cortex for permanent storage. H.M.'s mind could form the initial impressions, but without a hippocampus to perform this memory consolidation, they eroded, like messages scrawled in sand. But this was not the only memory distinction Milner found. In a now famous experiment, she asked H.M. to trace a third star in the narrow space between the outlines of two concentric ones while he could only see his paper and pencil through a mirror. Like anyone else performing such an awkward task for the first time, he did horribly. But surprisingly, he improved over repeated trials, even though he had no memory of previous attempts. His unconscious motor centers remembered what the conscious mind had forgotten. What Milner had discovered was that the declarative memory of names, dates and facts is different from the procedural memory of riding a bicycle or signing your name. And we now know that procedural memory relies more on the basal ganglia and cerebellum, structures that were intact in H.M.'s brain.

This distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how" has underpinned all memory research since. H.M. died at the age of 82 after a mostly peaceful life in a nursing home. Over the years, he had been examined by more than 100 neuroscientists, making his the most studied mind in history. Upon his death, his brain was preserved and scanned before being cut into over 2000 individual slices and photographed to form a digital map down to the level of individual neurons, all in a live broadcast watched by 400,000 people. Though H.M. spent most of his life forgetting things, he and his contributions to our understanding of memory will be remembered for generations to come.

#Consciousness #Brain #Memory #Medical_Research #Disease #Medicine #TED_Ed #Health_Care #Physiology #Human_Body #Healthcare #History #Science #Health #Animation #Surgery

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🟢The material that could change the world ... for a third time

#Climate_Change #Science #Sustainability #Technology #Invention #Education #Energy #TED_Ed #Animation #Electricity

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🟢The material that could change the world ... for a third time

Thousands of years ago, the Romans invented a material that allowed them to build much of their sprawling civilization. Pliny the Elder praised an imposing sea wall made from the stuff as “impregnable to the waves and every day stronger.” He was right: much of this construction still stands, having survived millennia of battering by environmental forces that would topple modern buildings.
Today, our roads, sidewalks, bridges, and skyscrapers are made of a similar, though less durable, material called concrete. There’s three tons of it for every person on Earth. And over the next 40 years, we’ll use enough of it to build the equivalent of New York City every single month.
Concrete has shaped our skylines, but that's not the only way it's changed our world. It’s also played a surprisingly large role in rising global temperatures over the last century, a trend that has already changed the world, and threatens to even more drastically in the coming decades.
To be fair to concrete, basically everything humanity does contributes to the greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming. Most of those emissions come from industrial processes we often aren’t aware of, but touch every aspect of our lives. Look around your home. Refrigeration— along with other heating and cooling— makes up about 6% of total emissions. Agriculture, which produces our food, accounts for 18%. Electricity is responsible for 27%. Walk outside, and the cars zipping past, planes overhead, trains ferrying commuters to work— transportation, including shipping, contributes 16% of greenhouse gas emissions.
Even before we use any of these things, making them produces emissions— a lot of emissions. Making materials— concrete, steel, plastic, glass, aluminum and everything else— accounts for 31% of greenhouse gas emissions. Concrete alone is responsible for 8% of all carbon emissions worldwide. And it’s much more difficult to reduce the emissions from concrete than from other building materials.
The problem is cement, one of the four ingredients in concrete. It holds the other three ingredients— gravel, sand, and water— together. Unfortunately, it's impossible to make cement without generating carbon dioxide. The essential ingredient in cement is calcium oxide, CaO. We get that calcium oxide from limestone, which is mostly made of calcium carbonate: CaCO3. We extract CaO from CaCO3 by heating limestone. What’s left is CO2— carbon dioxide. So for every ton of cement we produce, we release one ton of carbon dioxide.
As tricky as this problem is, it means concrete could help us change the world a third time: by eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and stabilizing our climate. Right now, there’s no 100% clean concrete, but there are some great ideas to help us get there. Cement manufacturing also produces greenhouse gas emissions by burning fossil fuels to heat the limestone. Heating the limestone with clean electricity or alternative fuels instead would eliminate those emissions.
For the carbon dioxide from the limestone itself, our best bet is carbon capture: specifically, capturing the carbon right where it’s produced, before it enters the atmosphere. Devices that do this already exist, but they aren’t widely used because there’s no economic incentive. Transporting and then storing the captured carbon can be expensive. To solve these problems, one company has found a way to store captured CO2 permanently in the concrete itself.

Other innovators are tinkering with the fundamental chemistry of concrete. Some are investigating ways to reduce emissions by decreasing the cement in concrete. Still others have been working to uncover and replicate the secrets of Roman concrete. They found that Pliny’s remark is literally true. The Romans used volcanic ash in their cement. When the ash interacted with seawater, the seawater strengthened it— making their concrete stronger and more long-lasting than any we use today. By adding these findings to an arsenal of modern innovations, hopefully we can replicate their success— both by making long lasting structures, and ensuring our descendants can admire them thousands of years from now.

#Climate_Change #Science #Sustainability #Technology #Invention #Education #Energy #TED_Ed #Animation #Electricity

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🟢Can you solve the logician's rave riddle?

#TED_Ed #Education #Math #Animation #Dance

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