Answers:

1. A. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their own capabilities to successfully execute behaviors necessary to achieve desired outcomes. It plays a crucial role in motivation, goal-setting, and resilience, as those with higher self-efficacy are more likely to persevere in the face of challenges and achieve success.

2. D. In classical conditioning, associative learning occurs when an individual acquires a new learned response by forming associations between two stimuli. Through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually eliciting a conditioned response. This process of forming associations between stimuli is known as associative learning.

3. C

Questions

1. Which of the following statistics is used to measure the central tendency of a distribution?
A. Variance
B. Standard deviation
D. Median
D. Correlation coefficient

2. In one study, 50 participants were asked to rate the level of stress they experienced due to the current economic pressure on a scale of 1 to 10. The scores were as follows: 19 participants rated 7, 16 participants rated 8, 9 participants rated 9, and 6 participants rated 10. What is the mean rating for this sample?
A. 8
B. 7.05
C. 8.04
D. 8.8

Answers:

1 C. The median is a measure of central tendency used in statistics to determine the middle value or central value in a distribution. It represents the value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set.

▶ on the other hand mean is influenced by extreme values, but the median is robust to outliers and provides a reliable representation of the central value.

▶ Variance and standard deviation are measures of spread or dispersion in a distribution, not central tendency. They quantify how far data points deviate from the mean. Variance measures the average squared deviation from the mean.
▶ The standard deviation is the square root of variance, providing a measure of the average distance between data points and the mean value.

▶ The correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables, but it does not represent central tendency.

2. C To calculate the mean rating for the sample, we need to sum up all the ratings and divide it by the total number of ratings in the sample.

The sum of all the ratings can be calculated:
(19 * 7) + (16 * 8) + (9 * 9) + (6 * 10) = 133 + 128 + 81 + 60 = 402

The total number of ratings in the sample is 19 + 16 + 9 + 6 = 50

Then the mean 402/50 = 8.04

V1.
This study guide is a detailed and comprehensive overview on some psychological disorders according to the DSM-5 classification.

@tigi7shi

Procaffeinating: ምንም አይነት ነገር ለምሳሌ ስራ, ጥናት... ሊሆን ይችላል
ቡና እስኪጠጡ ድረስ ያለመጀመር ዝንባሌ ነው።

Procaffeinating: maal feeta? qayyabannaa, moo hojii akkamii faa dalagda osoo buna hin dhugin dura.

The Placebo Effect: ሰዎች በtreatment ላይ ባላቸው እምነት ብቻ ምንም እንኳን ትሪትመንቱ (እንደ መፍትሄ የተሰጣቸው ነገር) እውነተኛ ውጤት ያለው ባይሆንም እውነተኛ ወይም ስነልቦናዊ መሻሻል ሊያሳዩ እንደሚችሉ ያሳያል።

▶ Inattentional Blindness is phenomenon occurs when we fail to notice unexpected objects or events in our visual field because our attention is focused elsewhere.

▶ ትኩረታችንን አንድ ነገር ላይ አድርገን እዛው እየተከሰተ ያለ ሌላ ነገር ከእይታችን ሲሰወርብን ነው።

ለምሳሌ:

⏺ መንገድ ስንሻገር ስልካችን ላይ ትኩረት አድርገን ወይም በአንደኛው አቅጣጫ የሚመጣ ተሽከርካሪ ከሌለ የሌላኛውን አቅጣጫ ሳናይ ዘው ብለን ስንገባ ወይም

⏺ ስለ ሮም ኢምፓየር የሚተርክ documentary በትኩረት እያየን backgtound ላይ የጦር ጀት እየበረረ  ያለበትን scene ትኩረት ሳንሰጥ ስንዘለው ወይም

⏺ እያወራን cafe ውስጥ ጓደኛችን የሱን ሰሃን በኛ ሰሃን ሲቀይረው  አለማስተዋል ሊሆን ይችላል።

▶ It highlights the limitations of our attention and perception.

Questions

1. Which of the following best describes the concept of informed consent?

A. It is a legal requirement that psychologists must obtain from individuals before conducting any research or providing treatment.
B. It is a voluntary agreement that individuals give after being fully informed about the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of participating in a study or receiving treatment.
C. It is a process through which psychologists manipulate individuals into participating in research or receiving treatment against their will.
D. It is a principle that only applies to research studies and does not apply to clinical practice.

2 Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good psychological test?
A. Reliability
B. Validity
C. Standardization
D. Subjectivity

Answers:
1. B. Informed consent is a fundamental ethical principle in psychology that applies to both research and clinical practice. It is not only a legal requirement but also an ethical obligation for psychologists.

2. D. Subjectivity
Subjectivity refers to the personal biases and opinions of the examiner, which can introduce inconsistency and inaccuracies in test results. Allowing for subjective interpretation of test results by the examiner.

▶ A good psychological test should aim to minimize subjectivity and ensure objectivity in scoring and interpretation.

▶ Reliability: Consistency in results over time and across different context.

▶ Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

▶ Standardization: Administering the test in a consistent manner to ensure accurate and fair results.

cognitive dissonance:
▶ where individuals experience psychological discomfort when their thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors are inconsistent with each other. Mismatch between thought and action (ይጋጫሉ).

▶ In this picture a person is smoking a cigarette while wearing a t-shirt that says "Smoking Kills,"

▶ Exam anxiety/ የፈተና ጭንቀት ምንድነው?

▶ Exam anxiety/ የፈተና ጭንቀትን እንዴት መቆጣጠር ወይም ማስወገድ እንችላለን? ~ coping mechanisms

▶ የፈተና ጭንቀት ለማስወገድ የተቀመጡት ሃሳቦች የፈተና ጭንቀት የሚከሰቱበትን causes ታሳቢ ያደረገ ነው።

@tigi7shi

Physiological Psychology

@tigi7shi

Question

1. Which of the following is a common symptom of depressive personality disorder?

A. Persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness
B. Frequent mood swings and emotional instability
C. Excessive worry and anxiety about everyday situations
D. Impulsive and reckless behavior

Answer

A. Persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness

Depressive Personality Disorder (DPD) በአንጻራዊ ቋሚ ለረጅም ጊዜ የሚዘልቅ ሊባል የሚችል በባህሪ ስሜትና ሃሳብ ላይ የሚታይ ደስታን የማጣት ሁሌም ጨለምተኛ ወደሆነው side ማዘንበል ወይም መዋጥ ነው።

▶ DPD is characterized by pervasive depressive symptoms and negative thinking.

▶ DPD involves chronic feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and low self-esteem.

▶ DPD differs from major depressive disorder (MDD) as it is a long-standing pattern of symptoms.

▶ The cause of DPD is believed to be influenced by genetics, environment, and psychological factors.

▶ Symptoms of DPD include persistent sadness, self-criticism, social withdrawal, and difficulty experiencing pleasure.

▶ DPD can impact relationships and functioning in work or school settings.

▶ DPD is associated with an increased risk of other mental health disorders.

▶ Treatment for DPD involves psychotherapy and medication.

▶ Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), can help challenge negative thinking patterns.

▶ With treatment and support, individuals with DPD can improve their symptoms and quality of life.

Simpson's paradox
በstatistical analysis ጊዜ የሚፈጠር ክስተት ነው። 

▶ የተለያዩ dataset ወይም groups ለየብቻ analysis ስንሰራ የነበራቸው ውጤት አለ። ከዛ ግሩፖቹን ቀላቅለን analysis ስንሰራ ያ ውጤት ሲጠፋ ወይም የተገለበጠ ውጤት ሲመጣ Simpson's paradox ይባላል።

ለምሳሌ: የ ሁለት dep. Admission rate እንይ:

Biology Department:
* የወንዶች admission rate: 60%
* የሴቶች admission rate: 40%

Psychology Department:
* የወንዶች admission rate: 70%
* የሴቶች admission rate: 50%

▶ ዳታውን ለየብቻ ስናየው በወንድም በሴትም psychology department higher admission rate አለው ከ biology ጋር ሲወዳደር።

▶ የሁለቱን ዲፓረርትመንት ስናቀላቅለው ደሞ: የሴቶች admission ከወንዶች ያነሰ ይሆናል።

▶ በወንድም በሴትም psychology department higher admission ቢኖረውም, ስናቀላቅለው የሴቶች admission ከወንዶች ያነሰ ይሆናል።

▶ Simpson's paradox የሚነግረን
የተደበቁ confounding variables መጠንቀቅ እንዳለብን ነው።

Question
1. The major focus of cognitive psychology is ___

A. Studying the unconscious mind
B. Examining observable behavior
C. Investigating mental processes and thinking
D. Analyzing the influence of genetics on behavior