3️⃣rd Lec of #Inorganic
✨ Aluminum :

1. What is the atomic number of aluminium?
a)12
b)13
c)26
d)3
Answer: b) 13

2. From which salt does the name 'aluminium' derive?
a)Alum
b)Aluminate
c)Alumina
d)Aluminium sulfate
Answer: a) Alum

3. In a normal human body, where is most of the aluminium found?
a)The brain and liver
b)The lungs and skeleton
c)The blood and kidneys
d)The stomach and intestines
Answer: b) The lungs and skeleton

4. Why is Al³⁺ a potential competitive inhibitor for elements like Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺?
a)It has a similar atomic mass.
b)It has similar ionic radii and charges.
c)It forms similar covalent bonds.
d)It is more abundant in the body.
Answer: b) It has similar ionic radii and charges.

5. Under normal circumstances, why does Al³⁺ not accumulate in the human body?
a)It is not absorbed at all.
b)It is stored permanently in fat tissues.
c)The kidneys quickly excrete most of it.
d)The brain breaks it down efficiently.
Answer: c) The kidneys quickly excrete most of it.

6. In water purification, what is the final solid product formed when Al³⁺ and lime (CaO) are added?
a)AlCl₃
b)CaSO₄
c)Al(OH)₃
d)AlPO₄
Answer: c) Al(OH)₃

7. What is the primary function of an adjuvant in a vaccine?
a)To act as the primary antigen
b)To kill viruses in the vaccine
c)To increase antibody responses and/or stabilize the preparation
d)To reduce the cost of production
Answer: c) To increase antibody responses and/or stabilize the preparation

8. Which of the following is NOT listed as a typical aluminium-based adjuvant?
a)Al(OH)₃
b)AlPO₄
c)ZrO₂
d)KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O
Answer: c) ZrO₂

9. What is the primary medical function of antacids?
a)To stimulate digestion
b)To neutralize excess stomach acid
c)To coat the stomach lining
d)To kill harmful bacteria
Answer: b) To neutralize excess stomach acid

10. What is a common side effect of using Al(OH)₃ as an antacid, which is often countered by formulating it with Mg²⁺ compounds?
a)Diarrhea
b)Headache
c)Constipation
d)Drowsiness
Answer: c) Constipation

11. What is simethicone, often added to antacid formulations?
a)A sweetening agent
b)An antifoaming agent
c)A coloring agent
d)A binding agent
Answer: b) An antifoaming agent

12. A key disadvantage of using sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) as an antacid is that it produces:
a)Hydrogen gas
b)Methane gas
c)Carbon dioxide gas
d)Nitrogen gas
Answer: c) Carbon dioxide gas

13. Which aluminium compound is specifically mentioned as being used in the anti-acid formulation Gastralgine?
a)Aluminium chloride
b)Aluminium glycinate
c)Aluminium phosphate
d)Aluminium oxide
Answer: b) Aluminium glycinate

14. In alginate raft formulations, what is the primary role of the alginate polymer?
a)To neutralize acid directly
b)To form a low-density viscous gel that floats
c)To act as an antibiotic
d)To provide a sweet taste
Answer: b) To form a low-density viscous gel that floats

15. What condition is commonly treated with aluminium-based phosphate binders like Al(OH)₃?
a)Hypophosphataemia
b)Hyperphosphataemia
c)Anaemia
d)Hypertension
Answer: b) Hyperphosphataemia

16. Where does the freshly precipitated Al(OH)₃ adsorb phosphate ions in the body?
a)In the stomach
b)In the oesophagus
c)In the distal intestines
d)In the blood
Answer: c) In the distal intestines

17. How is the Al³⁺-phosphate complex finally excreted from the body?
a)Via urine
b)Via sweat
c)Via exhaled air
d)Via faeces
Answer: d) Via faeces

18. How do aluminosilicates, like those in Malinal, differ from Al(OH)₃ as phosphate binders?
a)They are less effective.
b)They need prior exposure to acid to produce free Al³⁺.
c)They are excreted via urine.
d)They work only in the stomach.
Answer: b) They need prior exposure to acid to produce free Al³⁺.

19. How does AlCl₃ function as an antiperspirant?
a)By killing sweat gland bacteria
b)By forming a plug of Al(OH)₃ within the sweat duct
c)By cooling the skin surface
d)By dilating the sweat ducts
Answer: b) By forming a plug of Al(OH)₃ within the sweat duct

3️⃣rd Lec of #Inorganic
✨ Gallium :

1. why is oral administration of gallium considered superior to parenteral administration?
A. It causes more myelosuppression.
B. It leads to a slow plasma loading and transferrin binding, potentially reducing renal toxicity.
C. It is excreted more quickly by the kidneys.
D. It does not bind to transferrin.
Answer: B.

2. What is the standard intravenous dose of gallium nitrate for treating cancer-induced hypercalcaemia?
A. 200 mg/m² for 5 days
B. 100 mg/m² for 10 days
C. 200 mg/m² for 10 days
D. 100 mg/m² for 5 days
Answer: A.

3. What is the dose-limiting factor for gallium nitrate when administered as a brief intravenous infusion?
A. Diarrhoea
B. Leukopaenia
C. Renal toxicities
D. Myelosuppression
Answer: C.

4. What is the most common side effect of gallium nitrate with long-term administration regimes?
A. Renal toxicity
B. Diarrhoea
C. Myelosuppression
D. Leukopaenia
Answer: B.

5. A major advantage of gallium nitrate therapies over conventional chemotherapeutic agents is:
A. It causes severe diarrhoea.
B. It does not suppress platelet or white blood cell counts.
C. It has a very short half-life.
Answer: B.

6. Why is the radioactive isotope ^{72}Ga not suitable for effective radiotherapy of bone cancer?
A. It has too long a half-life.
B. It does not accumulate in the bone.
C. Its half-life of around 14 hours is not long enough.
D. It is too expensive to produce.
Answer: C.

7. Current clinical developments involve the use of radioactive gallium isotopes as:
A. Pain relievers
B. Tumor imaging reagents
C. Blood thinners
D. Antibiotics
Answer: B.

8. The stability of gallium chloride or nitrate solutions for oral administration is primarily affected by:
A. Temperature
B. Light exposure
C. pH
D. Concentration
Answer: C.

9. Gallium hydroxide species are described as amphoteric, which is analogous to which other element's compounds?
A. Iron
B. Sodium
C. Aluminium
D. Calcium
Answer: C.

10. The ionic radius and binding properties of Ga^{3+} are most similar to which ion?
A. Ca^{2+}
B. Fe^{2+}
C. Fe^{3+}
D. Mg^{2+}
Answer: C.

11. A key difference in the redox chemistry of Ga^{3+} compared to Fe^{3+} is that Ga^{3+} :
A. Can be easily reduced to a divalent state.
B. Cannot be reduced to a divalent state.
C. Is a stronger oxidizing agent.
D. Is involved in haeme group binding.
Answer: B.

12. Why can Ga^{3+} not bind to the haeme group?
A. It is too large.
B. It does not reduce to the +II state required for binding.
C. It is repelled by the protein structure.
D. It preferentially binds to DNA instead.
Answer: B.

13. What is the primary function of transferrin in the blood plasma?
A. To transport oxygen
B. To bind and remove free, toxic iron ions
C. To reduce gallium ions
D. To synthesize DNA
Answer: B.

14. How does the affinity of Ga^{3+} for transferrin compare to that of Fe^{3+} ?
A. Ga^{3+} has a higher affinity.
B. Ga^{3+} has a lower affinity.
C. Their affinities are identical.
D. Ga^{3+} does not bind to transferrin at all.
Answer: B.

15. When the binding capacity of transferrin for gallium is exceeded, gallium is believed to circulate as:
A. Free Ga^{3+} ions
B. Gallate ( [Ga(OH)_{4}]^{-} )
C. Gallium nitrate
D. Gallium maltolate
Answer: B.

16. The therapeutic action of gallium is primarily based on its ability to:
A. Mimic calcium.
B. Mimic iron and compete for its active sites in enzymes.
C. Act as a strong reducing agent.
D. Directly break DNA strands.
Answer: B.

17. In the cytosol, gallium can bind to and inhibit which enzyme, thereby impairing DNA replication?
A. Transferrin
B. DNA polymerase
C. Ribonucleotide reductase
D. Lactate dehydrogenase
Answer: C.

2️⃣nd Lec of #Pharmacognosy
🌺 Carbohydrates :

1. What are the primary elements that constitute carbohydrates?
a)Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulfur
b)Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
c)Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
d)Carbon, Dioxide, Water
Answer: b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

2. The hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio in carbohydrates is generally the same as in:
a)Hydrogen Peroxide
b)Carbon Dioxide
c)Water
d)Methane
Answer: c) Water

3. Why are carbohydrates a convenient starting point for discussing vegetable drugs?
a)They are complex and difficult to break down.
b)They are the first products formed in photosynthesis.
c)They are only found in animals.
d)They have no significant function in plants.
Answer: b) They are the first products formed in photosynthesis.

4. What is the primary fuel for the body's tissues?
a)Fructose
b)Sucrose
c)Galactose
d)Glucose
Answer: d) Glucose

5. Which monosaccharide is a component of nucleic acids?
a)Galactose
b)Ribose
c)Fructose
d)Glucose
Answer: b) Ribose

6. Lactose in milk is composed of glucose and which other monosaccharide?
a)Fructose
b)Ribose
c)Galactose
d)Mannose
Answer: c) Galactose

7. What are complex molecules formed from the combination of carbohydrates and proteins called?
a)Lipoproteins
b)Glycoproteins
c)Nucleoproteins
d)Glycolipids
Answer: b) Glycoproteins

8. Into which two broad groups are carbohydrates classified?
a)Sugars and Proteins
b)Sugars and Polysaccharides
c)Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
d)Simple and Complex Lipids
Answer: b) Sugars and Polysaccharides

9. Which of the following is a characteristic of sugars?
a)Insoluble in water
b)Bitter taste
c)Crystalline and sweet
d)High molecular weight
Answer: c) Crystalline and sweet

10. Monosaccharides are defined as:
a)Compounds that yield two simpler sugars on hydrolysis.
b)Compounds that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler sugars.
c)Compounds with a very high molecular weight.
d)Polymers of amino acids.
Answer: b) Compounds that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler sugars.

11. A disaccharide yields how many monosaccharide molecules upon hydrolysis?
a)1
b)2
c)3
d)4
Answer: b) 2

12. A trisaccharide yields how many monosaccharide molecules upon hydrolysis?
a)1
b)2
c)3
d)4
Answer: c) 3

13. Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of what in their molecule?
a)Oxygen atoms
b)Carbon atoms
c)Hydrogen atoms
d)Functional groups
Answer: b) Carbon atoms

14. A 5-carbon monosaccharide is called a:
a)Triose
b)Tetrose
c)Pentose
d)Hexose
Answer: c) Pentose

15. A 6-carbon monosaccharide is called a:
a)Triose
b)Tetrose
c)Pentose
d)Hexose
Answer: d) Hexose

16. Which of the following is a polysaccharide?
a)Glucose
b)Sucrose
c)Starch
d)Ribose
Answer: c) Starch

17. Upon hydrolysis, starch yields which monosaccharide?
a)Fructose
b)Galactose
c)Glucose
d)Ribose
Answer: c) Glucose

18. A polysaccharide that yields fructose upon hydrolysis is known as a:
a)Glucosan
b)Fructosan
c)Galactosan
d)Ribosan
Answer: b) Fructosan

19. Which polysaccharide is represented as a fructosan?
a)Starch
b)Cellulose
c)Inulin
d)Dextran
Answer: c) Inulin

20. Hexoses are considered the most important monosaccharides in plants because they:
a)Are the sweetest sugars.
b)Form the units from which most polysaccharides are constructed.
c)Are only used for energy storage.
d)Cannot form ring structures.
Answer: b) Form the units from which most polysaccharides are constructed.

21. In an open-chain aldohexose, the sixth carbon is part of which functional group?
a)Ketone
b)Alcohol
c)Aldehyde
d)Carboxyl
Answer: c) Aldehyde

22. D-fructose is an example of a:
a)Aldohexose
b)Ketohexose
c)Aldopentose
d)Ketopentose
Answer: b) Ketohexose

23. The reducing properties of monosaccharides are due to the presence of:
a)Alcohol groups (-OH)
b)The carbonyl group (C=O) of aldehyde or ketone
c)Methyl groups (-CH3)
d)Long carbon chains
Answer: b) The carbonyl group (C=O) of aldehyde or ketone

24. What term is commonly applied to sugars that exhibit reducing properties?
a)Non-reducing sugars
b)Complex sugars
c)Reducing sugars
d)Inert sugars
Answer: c) Reducing sugars