There’s an ancient view what makes human beings special—what distinguishes us from the “beasts of the field”—is that we are rational. We manifest our rationality by engaging in activities that involve reasoning—making claims and backing them up with reasons, acting in accord with reasons and beliefs, drawing inferences from available evidence, and so on.
This reasoning activity can be done well and it can be done badly; it can be done correctly or incorrectly. Logic is the discipline that aims to distinguish good reasoning from bad.
Good reasoning is not necessarily effective reasoning. In fact, bad reasoning is pervasive and often extremely effective—in the sense that people are often persuaded by it. In logic, the standard of goodness is not effectiveness in the sense of persuasiveness, but rather correctness according to logical rules.

distinguish - выделить
rational - рациональный, разумный
inferences - выводы
pervasive - распространяющийся
persuasiveness - убедительность


#advanced

Leprechauns are a type of fairy, though it's important to note that the fairies of Irish folklore were not cute Disneyfied pixies; they could be lustful, nasty, capricious creatures whose magic might delight you one day and kill you the next if you displeased them.
Leprechauns are often described as wizened, bearded old men dressed in green (early versions were clad in red) and wearing buckled shoes, often with a leather apron. Sometimes they wear a pointed cap or hat and may be smoking a pipe.
According to Irish legends, people lucky enough to find a leprechaun and capture him (or, in some stories, steal his magical ring, coin or amulet) can barter his freedom for his treasure. Leprechauns are usually said to be able to grant the person three wishes. But dealing with leprechauns can be a tricky proposition.

leprechaun - лепрекон (гном, эльф)
folklore - фольклор
lustful - похотливый
delight - восхищать, услаждать
wizened - сморщенный
capture - захватывать
proposition - предложение


#intermediate

If you think Halloween is a uniquely American tradition, have we got a trick for you! Dressing up in a creative costume, gallivanting around in the gathering dusk to collect the best candy from the neighbors and getting together with friends for a monster ball are all beloved traditions. But the fall holiday didn't start stateside at all. In fact, the history of Halloween dates back thousands of years to the Celtic celebration of Samhain, a hallowed festival that marked the end of the harvest season and welcomed in the new year. Samhain was also a time when the veil between the worlds of the living and the dead grew thin, so those of us with blood still running through our veins could communicate with loved ones who had passed on to the other side.

uniquely - однозначно
gallivant - бродить
dusk - сумерки, сумрак
neighbors - соседи
stateside - Штаты
date back - восходить
harvest season - сезон жатвы
veil - завеса
veins - вены


#intermediate

There are many traditions in the world. But if you can follow any tradition to its source, you will see it is only an outer manifestation or expression of an inner experience of one person or a group of people. When people try to organize and deliver that experience to more people, it becomes a system, and then becomes a tradition, and tradition sometimes turns into a religion, and sometimes into many other things.
All these things start with an inner experience before the process of either disorganized flow or organized conduct. If it is a disorganized flow, generally it gets referred to as a tradition because it is a loose organization. If it is a more organized expression, it becomes an organized religion. But essentially, if you go back, you will see all these things originated in an inner experience of an individual human being or a group of human beings.

source - источник
manifestation - проявление
inner - внутренний
organized conduct - организованное поведение
originate - происходить


#intermediate

Free public transport can rightfully claim to be the dream of every city dweller. However, in order to implement this project in the right way, it is vital to carefully consider all the details and analyze major points: whether positive aspects for the population and workers of the transport industry would overwhelm losses for the economy of the country.
The zero-fare public transport idea was first introduced in 1962 in Commerce city. The city had some social problems, and the government believed that the cancellation of fares could increase the demand for different types of public transport. This would mean that the automobile industry could lose large amounts of funding. Thus, the population would rather choose surface and underground transport, most of which were electric.

rightfully - по праву
city dweller - горожанин
implement - осуществлять
overwhelm - покрывать
cancellation - отмена
demand - требование
funding - финансирование
surface transport - наземный транспорт


#intermediate

Icons are considered an essential part of the church and are given special liturgical veneration. They serve as mediums of instruction for the uneducated faithful through the iconostasis, a screen shielding the altar, covered with icons depicting scenes from the New Testament, church feasts, and popular saints. In the classical Byzantine and Orthodox tradition, iconography is not a realistic but a symbolical art, and its function is to express in line and colour the theological teaching of the church.
Icons are traditionally painted on a wooden board with egg tempera, which needs to be applied to a firm surface to prevent it from cracking upon drying. The wooden panel is usually prepared with several coats of white gesso (a thick preparation of white pigment, such as gypsum, in an adhesive base).

liturgical veneration - литургическое почитание
iconostasis - иконостас
Byzantine  - византийский
Orthodox - православный
iconography - иконография
theological - богословский
adhesive - клейкое вещество

#advanced

A cloud is made of water drops or ice crystals floating in the sky. There are many kinds of clouds. Clouds are an important part of Earth's weather.
Clouds get their names in two ways. One way is by where they are found in the sky. Some clouds are high up in the sky. Low clouds form closer to Earth's surface. In fact, low clouds can even touch the ground. These clouds are called fog. Middle clouds are found between low and high clouds.
Another way clouds are named is by their shape. Cirrus clouds are high clouds. They look like feathers. Cumulus clouds are middle clouds. These clouds look like giant cotton balls in the sky. Stratus clouds are low clouds. They cover the sky like bed sheets.
Most of the water in clouds is in very small droplets. The droplets are so light they float in the air.

drops - капли
surface - поверхность
fog - туман
cirrus - перистые
feathers - перья
cumulus - кучевые
cotton balls - хлопковые шарики
stratus - слоистый
bed sheets - простыни
droplets - маленькие капли


#elementary

Monkeys are clever, social animals. They are known for running and leaping through trees with ease. Like apes and humans, monkeys belong to the group of mammals called primates.
Monkeys look somewhat like apes such as chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas. But monkeys differ from apes in several ways. For instance, every monkey has a tail, even if it is just a tiny nub. Apes do not have tails. Monkeys also generally have narrower chests than apes do.
Monkeys are intelligent animals that are good at solving problems. Almost all types live together in groups. A monkey group commonly includes several related females, their young, and one or more males.
Most monkeys eat mainly plants. Different types eat fruits, flowers, seeds, shoots, roots, and leaves. Some types of monkey also eat birds’ eggs, insects, and other small animals.

leaping - скачущий
apes - обезьяны (крупные)
mammals - млекопитающие
nub - шишка
chest - грудная клетка
solve - решать
mainly - в основном
shoots - побеги


#elementary

Probably, every woman dreams of her own knight on a white horse, who will come and take her to a fairy tale, in which he will Serenade her, kiss her hands and generally perform various feats in her honor. This is in our view the standard of a knight without fear and reproach.
Knights in our understanding are closely connected with the middle ages, it is from there that the ringing of swords and the trampling of hot horses from famous jousting tournaments are heard.
The middle ages are shrouded in a cloak of romance and hidden from us under the visor of time.
Knights appeared in Europe around the time of 10 in the 19th century, they were the personal cavalry army of a separate feudal Lord or king, in fact, they were the equestrian bodyguards of their master.

various feats - различные подвиги
reproach - упрек
trampling - топот
jousting tournaments - рыцарские турниры
shrouded - окутанный
cloak - плащ, мантия
cavalry army - кавалерийская армия
feudal - феодальный
equestrian - конный



#intermediate

A sore throat is pain, scratchiness or irritation of the throat that often worsens when you swallow. The most common cause of a sore throat (pharyngitis) is a viral infection, such as a cold or the flu. A sore throat caused by a virus resolves on its own.
Strep throat (streptococcal infection), a less common type of sore throat caused by bacteria, requires treatment with antibiotics to prevent complications. Other less common causes of sore throat might require more complex treatment.
The best way to prevent sore throats is to avoid the germs that cause them and practice good hygiene.
- Wash your hands thoroughly and frequently for at least 20 seconds.
- Avoid touching your face. 
- Cough or sneeze into a tissue and throw it away, and then wash your hands.

scratchiness - царапанье
viral infection - вирусная инфекция
strep - стрептококк
complications - осложнения
prevent - предотвращать
hygiene - гигиена


#intermediate

Ancient Egypt and India used tattoos as methods of healing and as methods of religious worship. They were also marks of a status in a society but also a punishment. Tattoos in Philippines were marks of the rank and accomplishments and people there believed that they have magical properties.
When Christianity appeared, tattooing was considered a barbaric tradition and it slowly faded in Europe to return with transoceanic travels in 16th. At first, tattooing was “reserved” for sailors and lower classes but in time, as tattoo artists became more and more proficient, tattooing became hobby of aristocracy which had money to pay high prices of professionals. As the tattooing became cheaper it again was seen as a mark of a lower class. 

healing - исцеление
worship - поклонение
accomplishments - достоинства
barbaric - варварский
proficient - опытный
aristocracy - аристократия


#intermediate