๐Some Important Increasing Order ๐:
๐ 1. Bond Angle :
(i) CH4 , C2H4 , C2H2
(ii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , CO2
(iii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , BH3
(iv) NO2โ, NO2 , NO2+
(v) H2Se, H2S, H2O
(vi) AsH3 , PH3 , NH3
(vii) PF3 , PCl3 , PBr3 , PI3
(viii) NF3 , NCl3
(ix) NF3 , NH3 , NCl3
(x) OF2 , OH2 , Cl2O
๐ 2. Melting Point :
(i) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
(ii) Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be
(iii) CaI2 , CaBr2 , CaCl2 , CaF2
(iv) BeCl2 , MgCl2 , CaCl2 , SrCl2 , BaCl2
(v) NaI, NaBr, NaCl, NaF
(vi) CsCl, RbCl, KCl, NaCl
(vii) AlCl3 , MgCl2 , NaCl
๐ 3.Boiling Point :
(i) PH3 , AsH3 , NH3 , SbH3
(ii) H2S, H2Se, H2O
(iii) HCl, HBr, HI, HF
(iv) NH3 , HF, H2O
(v) He, Ne, Ar, Kr
(vi) H2O, D2O
(vii) H2 , Cl2 , Br2
๐ 4.Dipole moments :
(i) CCl4 , CHCl3 , CH2Cl2 ,CH3Cl
(ii) NF3 , NH3 , H2O, HF
(iii) Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene
(iv) p, m, o-dichlorobenzene
(v) CH3I, CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl
(vi) NH3 , SO2 , H2O, HF
(vii) H2S, H2O
(viii) HI, HBr, HCl, HF
(ix) PH3 , ASH3 , SbH3 , NH3
(x) H2O, H2O2
๐ 1. Bond Angle :
(i) CH4 , C2H4 , C2H2
(ii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , CO2
(iii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , BH3
(iv) NO2โ, NO2 , NO2+
(v) H2Se, H2S, H2O
(vi) AsH3 , PH3 , NH3
(vii) PF3 , PCl3 , PBr3 , PI3
(viii) NF3 , NCl3
(ix) NF3 , NH3 , NCl3
(x) OF2 , OH2 , Cl2O
๐ 2. Melting Point :
(i) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
(ii) Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be
(iii) CaI2 , CaBr2 , CaCl2 , CaF2
(iv) BeCl2 , MgCl2 , CaCl2 , SrCl2 , BaCl2
(v) NaI, NaBr, NaCl, NaF
(vi) CsCl, RbCl, KCl, NaCl
(vii) AlCl3 , MgCl2 , NaCl
๐ 3.Boiling Point :
(i) PH3 , AsH3 , NH3 , SbH3
(ii) H2S, H2Se, H2O
(iii) HCl, HBr, HI, HF
(iv) NH3 , HF, H2O
(v) He, Ne, Ar, Kr
(vi) H2O, D2O
(vii) H2 , Cl2 , Br2
๐ 4.Dipole moments :
(i) CCl4 , CHCl3 , CH2Cl2 ,CH3Cl
(ii) NF3 , NH3 , H2O, HF
(iii) Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene
(iv) p, m, o-dichlorobenzene
(v) CH3I, CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl
(vi) NH3 , SO2 , H2O, HF
(vii) H2S, H2O
(viii) HI, HBr, HCl, HF
(ix) PH3 , ASH3 , SbH3 , NH3
(x) H2O, H2O2
๐ฅ๐ฅ Thermodynamics๐ฅ๐ฅ
โขโโโโโโโโโโโโ
,๐ฅBasic Terminology๐ฅ
โญSystem-
Part of the universe under investigation.
โญOpen System-
A system which can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
โญClosed System-
A system which permits passage of energy but not mass, across its boundary.
โญIsolated system-
A system which can neither exchange energy nor matter with its surrounding.
โญSurroundings-
Part of the universe other than system, which can interact with it.
โญBoundary-
Anything which separates system from surrounding.
โญState variables-
The variables which are required to be defined in order to define state of any system i.e. pressure, volume, mass, temperature, surface area, etc.
โญState Functions-
Property of system which depend only on the state of the system and not on the path. Example: Pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.
โญIntensive properties-
Properties of a system which do not depend on mass of the system i.e. temperature, pressure, density, concentration,
โญExtensive properties-
Properties of a system which depend on mass of the system i.e. volume, energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.
โญProcess-
Path along which state of a system changes.
โญIsothermal process-
Process which takes place at constant temperature
โญIsobaric process-
Process which takes place at constant pressure
โญIsochoric process-
Process which takes place at constant volume.
โญAdiabatic process-
Process during which transfer of heat cannot take place between system and surrounding.
โญCyclic process-
Process in which system comes back to its initial state after undergoing series of changes.
โญReversible process-
Process during which the system always departs infinitesimally from the state of equilibrium i.e. its direction can be reversed at any moment.
โญIrriversible Process-
This type of process is fast and gets completed in a single step. This process cannot be reversed. All the natural processes are of this type.
โขโโโโโโโโโโโโ
,๐ฅBasic Terminology๐ฅ
โญSystem-
Part of the universe under investigation.
โญOpen System-
A system which can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
โญClosed System-
A system which permits passage of energy but not mass, across its boundary.
โญIsolated system-
A system which can neither exchange energy nor matter with its surrounding.
โญSurroundings-
Part of the universe other than system, which can interact with it.
โญBoundary-
Anything which separates system from surrounding.
โญState variables-
The variables which are required to be defined in order to define state of any system i.e. pressure, volume, mass, temperature, surface area, etc.
โญState Functions-
Property of system which depend only on the state of the system and not on the path. Example: Pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.
โญIntensive properties-
Properties of a system which do not depend on mass of the system i.e. temperature, pressure, density, concentration,
โญExtensive properties-
Properties of a system which depend on mass of the system i.e. volume, energy, enthalpy, entropy etc.
โญProcess-
Path along which state of a system changes.
โญIsothermal process-
Process which takes place at constant temperature
โญIsobaric process-
Process which takes place at constant pressure
โญIsochoric process-
Process which takes place at constant volume.
โญAdiabatic process-
Process during which transfer of heat cannot take place between system and surrounding.
โญCyclic process-
Process in which system comes back to its initial state after undergoing series of changes.
โญReversible process-
Process during which the system always departs infinitesimally from the state of equilibrium i.e. its direction can be reversed at any moment.
โญIrriversible Process-
This type of process is fast and gets completed in a single step. This process cannot be reversed. All the natural processes are of this type.
BIOTECH SHORT NOTES
Biotechnology essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and biologicals
. The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
2. Biotechnology have the following three critical research areas:
(i) To provide the best catalyst in the form of improved organism, usually a microbe or pure enzyme.
(ii) To create optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
(iii) Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.
Biotechnology essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and biologicals
. The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
2. Biotechnology have the following three critical research areas:
(i) To provide the best catalyst in the form of improved organism, usually a microbe or pure enzyme.
(ii) To create optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
(iii) Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.
๐ Important One Liners on Electric Charges ๐
------------------------------------------------------------------------
โซ๏ธ If an object is attracted by another charged body, the first object may be oppositely charged or not charged because we know both an uncharged object and an oppositely charged object are attracted by another charged object.
โซ๏ธ If an object is positively charged it loses some of its electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.11*10^-31 kg. So, if a positively charged body loses โnโ number of electrons, it mass decrease by the amount n*9.11E^-31kg.
โซ๏ธ Though gold is a costly metal it is used in electroscope because of the property malleability. This means very thin and light sheets can be formed from gold simply by hammering or rolling and hence the deflection of the light gold plates increases.
โซ๏ธ The divergence of the plates of the Gold-leaf oscilloscope depends only on the presence of a charge, not on the quality of charge i.e. positive or negative. So, if the charge changes from positive to negative and vice versa the degree of divergence of the plates remains the same.
โซ๏ธ The same charges repel each other. So, they try to maintain maximum distance from each other and hence they try to remain at the outer surface of an object. If the charge remains on the inner surface or throughout the body, they will repel each other with greater force.
โซ๏ธ The human body is a good conductor and hence the charge produced by friction flew through his body to the ground. We can tackle the problem simply by holding the brass rod with the help of some insulated holder.
โซ๏ธ If the apparatus is initially in contact with some positively charged body and then comes in contact with another โซ๏ธ charged body and if the divergence increases we can deduce that the second body is also positively charged. If the divergence decreases then the second body must be negatively charged.
โซ๏ธ According to electrostatic series, glass is situated above silk. So, if the glass is rubbed with silk, the positive charge on glass and negative charge on silk is produced. Similarly, we can predict what is the nature of charge if we rub two di-electric substances together.
โซ๏ธ 1 Coulomb means 3*10^9 Electro Static Unit of charge. Coulomb and ESU are two different units of charge and their conversion formula is necessary. Coulomb is the unit of charge in the SI system and esu is the unit of charge in the CGS system.
โซ๏ธ The two spheres are oppositely charged by the same amount. So if they come in contact, both of their charges are neutralized. So they become uncharged and donโt attract or repel each other.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
โซ๏ธ If an object is attracted by another charged body, the first object may be oppositely charged or not charged because we know both an uncharged object and an oppositely charged object are attracted by another charged object.
โซ๏ธ If an object is positively charged it loses some of its electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.11*10^-31 kg. So, if a positively charged body loses โnโ number of electrons, it mass decrease by the amount n*9.11E^-31kg.
โซ๏ธ Though gold is a costly metal it is used in electroscope because of the property malleability. This means very thin and light sheets can be formed from gold simply by hammering or rolling and hence the deflection of the light gold plates increases.
โซ๏ธ The divergence of the plates of the Gold-leaf oscilloscope depends only on the presence of a charge, not on the quality of charge i.e. positive or negative. So, if the charge changes from positive to negative and vice versa the degree of divergence of the plates remains the same.
โซ๏ธ The same charges repel each other. So, they try to maintain maximum distance from each other and hence they try to remain at the outer surface of an object. If the charge remains on the inner surface or throughout the body, they will repel each other with greater force.
โซ๏ธ The human body is a good conductor and hence the charge produced by friction flew through his body to the ground. We can tackle the problem simply by holding the brass rod with the help of some insulated holder.
โซ๏ธ If the apparatus is initially in contact with some positively charged body and then comes in contact with another โซ๏ธ charged body and if the divergence increases we can deduce that the second body is also positively charged. If the divergence decreases then the second body must be negatively charged.
โซ๏ธ According to electrostatic series, glass is situated above silk. So, if the glass is rubbed with silk, the positive charge on glass and negative charge on silk is produced. Similarly, we can predict what is the nature of charge if we rub two di-electric substances together.
โซ๏ธ 1 Coulomb means 3*10^9 Electro Static Unit of charge. Coulomb and ESU are two different units of charge and their conversion formula is necessary. Coulomb is the unit of charge in the SI system and esu is the unit of charge in the CGS system.
โซ๏ธ The two spheres are oppositely charged by the same amount. So if they come in contact, both of their charges are neutralized. So they become uncharged and donโt attract or repel each other.
Important Points of NCERT :
๐ Environmental protection act:- 1986
๐ Air Act:- 1981(amended in 1987)
๐ 1990:- Delhi ranked 4th out of 41 most polluted cities in the World.
๐ All buses run on CNG by- 2002
๐ Water Act:- 1974
๐ Chipko movement(Garhwal Himalayas):- 1974
๐ JFM(Joint Forest Management):- the 1980s
๐ Montreal Protocol (Canada):- 1987 (amended in 1989)
๐ The Earth Summit:- 1992 (Rio de Janeiro)
๐ World Summit:- 2002 (Johannesburg S.A)
๐ IUCN Red List (2004):- 784 species extinct in last 500 years.
๐ Joint Forest Management (JFM):- 1980's.
๐ 1st recombinant DNA:- 1972.
๐ 1st restriction endonuclease:- 1963.
๐ 1997:-An American company got patent rights on Basmati rice.
๐ 1990:- 4 year old girl got ADA deficiency
๐ Environmental protection act:- 1986
๐ Air Act:- 1981(amended in 1987)
๐ 1990:- Delhi ranked 4th out of 41 most polluted cities in the World.
๐ All buses run on CNG by- 2002
๐ Water Act:- 1974
๐ Chipko movement(Garhwal Himalayas):- 1974
๐ JFM(Joint Forest Management):- the 1980s
๐ Montreal Protocol (Canada):- 1987 (amended in 1989)
๐ The Earth Summit:- 1992 (Rio de Janeiro)
๐ World Summit:- 2002 (Johannesburg S.A)
๐ IUCN Red List (2004):- 784 species extinct in last 500 years.
๐ Joint Forest Management (JFM):- 1980's.
๐ 1st recombinant DNA:- 1972.
๐ 1st restriction endonuclease:- 1963.
๐ 1997:-An American company got patent rights on Basmati rice.
๐ 1990:- 4 year old girl got ADA deficiency
โ๏ธRevision Notes on Vectorsโ๏ธ
โโโโโโโโโโโโ
Some Basic Results of Vector Calculus:
1) Vectors in the same direction can be added by simply adding their magnitudes. But if the vectors to be added are in opposite directions, then their magnitudes are subtracted and not added.
2) Column vectors can be added by simply adding the values in each row.
3) You can find the magnitude of a vector in three dimensions by using the formula a2 = b2 + c2 + d2, where a is the magnitude of the vector, and b, c, and d are the components in each direction.
4) If l1a + m1b = l2a + m2b then l1 = l2 and m1 = m2
5) Collinear Vectors are also parallel vectors except that they lie on the same line.
6) When two vectors are parallel, the dot product of the vectors is 1 and their cross product is zero.
7)Two collinear vectors are always linearly dependent.
8) Two non-collinear non-zero vectors are always linearly independent
9) Three coplanar vectors are always linearly dependent.
10) Three non-coplanar non-zero vectors are always linearly independent
11) More than 3 vectors are always linearly dependent.
12) Three vectors are linearly dependent if they are coplanar that means any one of them can be represented as a linear combination of other two.
STAY UNMUTED ๐
โโโโโโโโโโโโ
Some Basic Results of Vector Calculus:
1) Vectors in the same direction can be added by simply adding their magnitudes. But if the vectors to be added are in opposite directions, then their magnitudes are subtracted and not added.
2) Column vectors can be added by simply adding the values in each row.
3) You can find the magnitude of a vector in three dimensions by using the formula a2 = b2 + c2 + d2, where a is the magnitude of the vector, and b, c, and d are the components in each direction.
4) If l1a + m1b = l2a + m2b then l1 = l2 and m1 = m2
5) Collinear Vectors are also parallel vectors except that they lie on the same line.
6) When two vectors are parallel, the dot product of the vectors is 1 and their cross product is zero.
7)Two collinear vectors are always linearly dependent.
8) Two non-collinear non-zero vectors are always linearly independent
9) Three coplanar vectors are always linearly dependent.
10) Three non-coplanar non-zero vectors are always linearly independent
11) More than 3 vectors are always linearly dependent.
12) Three vectors are linearly dependent if they are coplanar that means any one of them can be represented as a linear combination of other two.
STAY UNMUTED ๐
๐พ๐๐๐ฅ๐ฉ๐๐ง - ๐๐๐๐ง๐ค๐๐๐จ ๐๐ฃ ๐๐ช๐ข๐๐ฃ ๐ฌ๐๐ก๐๐๐ง๐โค๏ธ
1.curd also known as lactobacillus or lactic acid bacteria(LAB) with high nutritional quality by increasing vitamin B12.
2.large holes in Swiss cheese are due to production of a large amount of CO2 by bacteria named ๐ฅ๐ง๐ค๐ฅ๐๐ค๐ฃ๐๐๐๐๐ฉ๐๐ง๐๐ช๐ข ๐จ๐๐๐ง๐ข๐๐ฃ๐๐.
3.camemcert cheese(soft) - penicillium camemberti
4.Roquefort cheese( semi-hard) -penicillium Roqueforti
5.Baker's yeast- Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
6.'Toddy' prepared from sap of palms by fermentation.
7.yeast fermentation are
a) Beer- produced from hordeum vulgare and alcohal content is 3-6%
b) Wine - from grapes and alcohol amount is 10-20%
c) brands - distillation of wine and alcohol amount is 60-70%
d) Tum prodced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol amount is 40%
8.penicillin was the first antibiotic by ๐ผ๐ก๐๐ญ๐๐ฃ๐๐๐ง ๐๐ก๐๐ข๐๐ฃ๐.
9. The bottle juice was cleared by ๐ฅ๐๐๐ฉ๐๐ฃ๐๐จ๐ ๐๐ฃ๐ ๐ฅ๐ง๐ค๐ฉ๐๐๐จ๐.
10. Streptokinase (by Bacterium streptococcus)- clot buster
11.Cyclosporin A ( by fungus trichiderma polysporum) - immunosuppressive agent
12.Statins (by yeast monascus purpureus) - blood cholesterol lowering agent.
13.๐ฝ๐๐ค๐ฅ๐๐จ๐ฉ๐๐๐๐๐- those biological agents that are used for control of weeds, insects,pathogens by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa
14. ๐ฝ๐๐๐ช๐ก๐ค๐ซ๐๐ง๐ช๐จ๐๐จ used as biological agents are in the genus nucleopolyhedrovirus.
15. ๐ฝ๐๐ค๐๐๐ง๐ฉ๐๐ก๐๐ฏ๐๐ง๐จ- organisms that are enrich the nutrient quality of soil by bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria.
16 .in ๐ฝ๐๐ค(๐๐ค๐๐๐ง) ๐๐๐จ - ๐ข๐๐ฉ๐๐๐ฃ๐(50-70%), ๐พ๐2(30-40%), ๐ฉ๐ง๐๐๐๐จ ๐ค๐ ๐๐ฎ๐๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ, ๐ฃ๐๐ฉ๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ, ๐๐ฎ๐๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ ๐จ๐ช๐ก๐ฅ๐๐๐๐.
1.curd also known as lactobacillus or lactic acid bacteria(LAB) with high nutritional quality by increasing vitamin B12.
2.large holes in Swiss cheese are due to production of a large amount of CO2 by bacteria named ๐ฅ๐ง๐ค๐ฅ๐๐ค๐ฃ๐๐๐๐๐ฉ๐๐ง๐๐ช๐ข ๐จ๐๐๐ง๐ข๐๐ฃ๐๐.
3.camemcert cheese(soft) - penicillium camemberti
4.Roquefort cheese( semi-hard) -penicillium Roqueforti
5.Baker's yeast- Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
6.'Toddy' prepared from sap of palms by fermentation.
7.yeast fermentation are
a) Beer- produced from hordeum vulgare and alcohal content is 3-6%
b) Wine - from grapes and alcohol amount is 10-20%
c) brands - distillation of wine and alcohol amount is 60-70%
d) Tum prodced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol amount is 40%
8.penicillin was the first antibiotic by ๐ผ๐ก๐๐ญ๐๐ฃ๐๐๐ง ๐๐ก๐๐ข๐๐ฃ๐.
9. The bottle juice was cleared by ๐ฅ๐๐๐ฉ๐๐ฃ๐๐จ๐ ๐๐ฃ๐ ๐ฅ๐ง๐ค๐ฉ๐๐๐จ๐.
10. Streptokinase (by Bacterium streptococcus)- clot buster
11.Cyclosporin A ( by fungus trichiderma polysporum) - immunosuppressive agent
12.Statins (by yeast monascus purpureus) - blood cholesterol lowering agent.
13.๐ฝ๐๐ค๐ฅ๐๐จ๐ฉ๐๐๐๐๐- those biological agents that are used for control of weeds, insects,pathogens by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa
14. ๐ฝ๐๐๐ช๐ก๐ค๐ซ๐๐ง๐ช๐จ๐๐จ used as biological agents are in the genus nucleopolyhedrovirus.
15. ๐ฝ๐๐ค๐๐๐ง๐ฉ๐๐ก๐๐ฏ๐๐ง๐จ- organisms that are enrich the nutrient quality of soil by bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria.
16 .in ๐ฝ๐๐ค(๐๐ค๐๐๐ง) ๐๐๐จ - ๐ข๐๐ฉ๐๐๐ฃ๐(50-70%), ๐พ๐2(30-40%), ๐ฉ๐ง๐๐๐๐จ ๐ค๐ ๐๐ฎ๐๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ, ๐ฃ๐๐ฉ๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ, ๐๐ฎ๐๐ง๐ค๐๐๐ฃ ๐จ๐ช๐ก๐ฅ๐๐๐๐.
NON-CHORDATES ENDED NOW CHORDATES HERE IS
๐พ๐๐ผ๐๐ ๐ผ๐๐๐๐๐ฝ๐๐ผ:-
The characteristics of the organisms present in class amphibia are as follows:
โThese can live both on land and in water.
โThey are ectothermic animals, found in a warm environment.
โTheir body is divided into head and trunk. The tail may or may not be present.
โThe skin is smooth and rough without any scales, but with glands that make it moist.
โThey have no paired fins. Unpaired fins might be present.
โThey have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.
โThey respire through the lungs and skin. Gills might be present externally in some adults.
โThe heart is three chambered.
โThe kidneys are mesonephric. The excretory material includes ammonia and urea.
โThey possess ten pairs of cranial nerves.
โThe lateral line is present during their development.
โThe sexes are separate and fertilization is usually external. However, in salamanders, the fertilization is internal.
โDevelopment is indirect with metamorphosis.
โBreeding occurs in water. The copulatory organs are absent in males.
Eg., Frogs, Salamanders
โโโโโโโโโโโโ
๐พ๐๐ผ๐๐ ๐ผ๐๐๐๐๐ฝ๐๐ผ:-
The characteristics of the organisms present in class amphibia are as follows:
โThese can live both on land and in water.
โThey are ectothermic animals, found in a warm environment.
โTheir body is divided into head and trunk. The tail may or may not be present.
โThe skin is smooth and rough without any scales, but with glands that make it moist.
โThey have no paired fins. Unpaired fins might be present.
โThey have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.
โThey respire through the lungs and skin. Gills might be present externally in some adults.
โThe heart is three chambered.
โThe kidneys are mesonephric. The excretory material includes ammonia and urea.
โThey possess ten pairs of cranial nerves.
โThe lateral line is present during their development.
โThe sexes are separate and fertilization is usually external. However, in salamanders, the fertilization is internal.
โDevelopment is indirect with metamorphosis.
โBreeding occurs in water. The copulatory organs are absent in males.
Eg., Frogs, Salamanders
โโโโโโโโโโโโ
๐ฐ Important Facts About Human Body ๐ฐ
=========================
๐ธ Largest and strongest Bone in the body:
โ Femur (thigh bone)
๐ธ Smallest Bone in the body
โ Stapes in ear
๐ธ Number of Cells in the body
โ 75 trillion
๐ธ Volume of Blood in the body
โ 6 litres (in 70 kg body)
๐ธ Number of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
โ In male: 5 to 6 million/cubic mm
โ In female: 4 to 5 million/cubic mm
๐ธ Life span of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
โ 100 to 120 days
๐ธ Life span of White Blood Cell(W.B.C.)
โ 3-4 days
๐ธ Normal White Blood Cell(W.B.C.) count
โ 5000-10000/cubic mm
๐ธ Time taken by R.B.C. to complete one cycle of circulation:
โ 20 seconds
๐ธ Other name of Red Blood Cell (R.B.C.):
โ Erythrocytes
๐ธ Largest White Blood Cells:
โ Monocytes
๐ธ Smallest White Blood Cells:
โ Lymphocyte
๐ธ Who discovered Blood Group:
โ Karl Landsteiner
๐ธ Blood Platelets count:
โ 150,000 - 400,000 platelets per micro litre
๐ธ Haemoglobin (Hb):
โ In male: 14-15 gm/100 c.c. of blood
โ In female: 11-14 gm/100 c.c. of blood
๐ธ Hb content in body:
โ 500-700 gm
๐ธ pH of Urine:
โ 6.5-8
๐ธ pH of Blood:
โ 7.36-7.41
๐ธ Volume of Semen:
โ 2-5 ml/ejaculation
๐ธ Pulse rate:
โ 72 per minute
๐ธ Thinnest Skin:
โ Eyelids
๐ธ Weight of Heart:
โ 200-300 gm
ใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐ
=========================
๐ธ Largest and strongest Bone in the body:
โ Femur (thigh bone)
๐ธ Smallest Bone in the body
โ Stapes in ear
๐ธ Number of Cells in the body
โ 75 trillion
๐ธ Volume of Blood in the body
โ 6 litres (in 70 kg body)
๐ธ Number of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
โ In male: 5 to 6 million/cubic mm
โ In female: 4 to 5 million/cubic mm
๐ธ Life span of Red Blood Cells(R.B.C.)
โ 100 to 120 days
๐ธ Life span of White Blood Cell(W.B.C.)
โ 3-4 days
๐ธ Normal White Blood Cell(W.B.C.) count
โ 5000-10000/cubic mm
๐ธ Time taken by R.B.C. to complete one cycle of circulation:
โ 20 seconds
๐ธ Other name of Red Blood Cell (R.B.C.):
โ Erythrocytes
๐ธ Largest White Blood Cells:
โ Monocytes
๐ธ Smallest White Blood Cells:
โ Lymphocyte
๐ธ Who discovered Blood Group:
โ Karl Landsteiner
๐ธ Blood Platelets count:
โ 150,000 - 400,000 platelets per micro litre
๐ธ Haemoglobin (Hb):
โ In male: 14-15 gm/100 c.c. of blood
โ In female: 11-14 gm/100 c.c. of blood
๐ธ Hb content in body:
โ 500-700 gm
๐ธ pH of Urine:
โ 6.5-8
๐ธ pH of Blood:
โ 7.36-7.41
๐ธ Volume of Semen:
โ 2-5 ml/ejaculation
๐ธ Pulse rate:
โ 72 per minute
๐ธ Thinnest Skin:
โ Eyelids
๐ธ Weight of Heart:
โ 200-300 gm
ใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐใฐ
Male Reproductive System
1. The elastic tissue which connects the cauda epididymis to the scrotal sac is
(a) Caput epididymis
(b) Scrotal ligament
(c) Gubernaculumโ
(d) Tendinous cord
2. By the contraction of the spermatic cord, the testis of man are not taken to the abdominal cavity due to this structure
(a) fat bodies and gubernaculum present over the testis
(b) attachment of testis by gubernaculum to the scrotal sac onlyโ
(c) narrowness of inguinal canal
(d) both (b) and (c)
3. The seminiferous tubules of the testis are lined by the germinal epithelium consisting of
(a) spermatids
(b) cells of Sertoliโ
(c) spermatogonium
(d) spermatocytes
4. These cells of the testes secrete testosterone
(a) Sertoli cells
(b) cells of germinal epithelium
(c) Cells of Leydig or interstitial cellsโ
(d) secondary spermatocytes
5. There is a connective tissue cord extending between the testis and abdominal wall known as
(a) mesenteric cord
(b) gubernaculum
(c) testis cord
(d) spermatic cordโ
6. Which of these is an accessory reproductive gland in male mammals
(a) Inguinal gland
(b) Prostate glandโ
(c) Mushroom-shaped gland
(d) Gastric gland
7. There are some special types of cells present in the seminiferous tubules known as Sertoli cells which are
(a) somatic cells
(b) germinal cells
(c) protective cellsโ
(d) reproductive cells
8. Seminiferous tubules develop central lumen after
(a) Old age
(b) Prepuberal time
(c) Birth
(d) Pubertyโ
9. Another name for Bulbourethral gland is
(a) Meibomian gland
(b) Prostate gland
(c) Perineal gland
(d) Cowperโs glandโ
10. In man, Cryptorchidism is the condition when
(a) testes do not descent into the scrotumโ
(b) there are two testes in each scrotum
(c) testis degenerates in the scrotum
(d) testis enlarges in the scrotum
1. The elastic tissue which connects the cauda epididymis to the scrotal sac is
(a) Caput epididymis
(b) Scrotal ligament
(c) Gubernaculumโ
(d) Tendinous cord
2. By the contraction of the spermatic cord, the testis of man are not taken to the abdominal cavity due to this structure
(a) fat bodies and gubernaculum present over the testis
(b) attachment of testis by gubernaculum to the scrotal sac onlyโ
(c) narrowness of inguinal canal
(d) both (b) and (c)
3. The seminiferous tubules of the testis are lined by the germinal epithelium consisting of
(a) spermatids
(b) cells of Sertoliโ
(c) spermatogonium
(d) spermatocytes
4. These cells of the testes secrete testosterone
(a) Sertoli cells
(b) cells of germinal epithelium
(c) Cells of Leydig or interstitial cellsโ
(d) secondary spermatocytes
5. There is a connective tissue cord extending between the testis and abdominal wall known as
(a) mesenteric cord
(b) gubernaculum
(c) testis cord
(d) spermatic cordโ
6. Which of these is an accessory reproductive gland in male mammals
(a) Inguinal gland
(b) Prostate glandโ
(c) Mushroom-shaped gland
(d) Gastric gland
7. There are some special types of cells present in the seminiferous tubules known as Sertoli cells which are
(a) somatic cells
(b) germinal cells
(c) protective cellsโ
(d) reproductive cells
8. Seminiferous tubules develop central lumen after
(a) Old age
(b) Prepuberal time
(c) Birth
(d) Pubertyโ
9. Another name for Bulbourethral gland is
(a) Meibomian gland
(b) Prostate gland
(c) Perineal gland
(d) Cowperโs glandโ
10. In man, Cryptorchidism is the condition when
(a) testes do not descent into the scrotumโ
(b) there are two testes in each scrotum
(c) testis degenerates in the scrotum
(d) testis enlarges in the scrotum
๐ฅIncreasings or Decreasing Order๐ฅ
๐ด 01. Melting point=
Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
๐ด 02. Colour of the flame=
Li-Red, Na-Golden, K-Violet, Rb-Red, Cs-Blue, Ca-Brick red, Sr-Blood red, Ba-Apple green
๐ด 03. Stability of hydrides =
LiH > NaH > KH > RbH> CsH
๐ด 04. Basic nature of hydroxides=
LIOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH
๐ด 05. Hydration energy=
Li> Na > K> Rb > Cs
๐ด 06. Reducing character=
Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na
๐ด 07. Stability of +3 oxidation state=
B> Al > Ga > In > T1
๐ด 08. Stability of +1 oxidation state= Ga < In < TI
๐ด 09. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides=
B< Al< Ga < In < TI
๐ด 10. Relative strength of Lewis acid= BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
๐ด 11. Ionisation energy=
B> Al <Ga > In <TI
๐ด 12. Reactivity=
C<Si< Ge < Sn <Pb
๐ด 13. Metallic character=
C< Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
๐ด 14. Acidic character of the oxides=
Co2 > SiO2 > Ge02 > SnO2 > PbO2
๐ด 15. Reducing nature of hydrides=
CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
๐ด 16. Thermal stability of tetrahalides=
CCl4> SiCl4> GeCl4> SnCl4 > PbCl4
๐ด 17. Oxidising character of M+4 species=
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
๐ด 18. Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides=
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCI4
๐ด 19. Acidic strength of trioxides=
N203 > P2O3 > As2O3
๐ด 20. Acidic strength of pentoxides=
N2O2 > P2O2> As202 > Sb2O2 > Biฬ202
๐ด 21. Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen=
N2O < NO <N2O3 <N2O4 < N2O5
๐ด 22. Basic nature/ bond angle/ thermal stability and dipole moment of hydrides=
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
๐ด 23. Stability of trihalides of nitrogen=
NF3 > NCl3 > NBr3
๐ด 24.Lewis base strength=
NF3 <NCl3 <NBr3 < NI3
๐ด 25. Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides=
NCl3 > PCI3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
๐ด 26. Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As, and Sb=
PCl3 > ASCl3 > SbCl3
๐ด 27. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
๐ด 28. Melting and boiling point of hydrides=
H2O > H2Te > H2Se >H2S
๐ด 29. Volatility of hydrides=
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S
๐ด 30. Reducing nature of hydrides=
H2S < H2Se < H2Te
๐ด 31. Covalent character of hydrides=
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
๐ด 32. The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation state)=
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2
SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
๐ด 33. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)=
SO < SO2 < SO3
SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2
๐ด 34. Bond energy of halogens=
Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
๐ด 35. Solubility of halogen in water =
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
๐ด 36. Oxidising power=
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
๐ด 37. Enthalpy of hydration of X ion=
F- > Cl- > Br- >I-
๐ด 38. Reactivity of halogens:=
F> Cl> Br > I
๐ด 39. Ionic character of M-X bond in halides
= M-F > M-Cl > MBr > M-I
๐ด 40. Reducing character of X ion:=
I- > Br- > Cl- > F-
๐ด 41. Acidic strength of halogen acids=
HI > HBr > HCI > HF
๐ด 42. Reducing property of hydrogen halides
= HF < HCL < HBr < HI
๐ด 43. Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
= Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl206 > Cl2O7
๐ด 44. Decreasing ionic size=
02- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+
๐ด 45. Increasing acidic property=
Na2O3 < MgO < ZnO< P205
๐ด 46. Increasing bond length=
N2 <02 < F2 < CL2
๐ด 47. Increasing size=
Ca2+ < Cl- < S2-
๐ด 48. Increasing acid strength=
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
๐ด 49. Increasing oxidation number of iodine=
HI< I2 <ICl <HIO4
๐ด 50. Increasing thermal stability=
HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3
๐ด 01. Melting point=
Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
๐ด 02. Colour of the flame=
Li-Red, Na-Golden, K-Violet, Rb-Red, Cs-Blue, Ca-Brick red, Sr-Blood red, Ba-Apple green
๐ด 03. Stability of hydrides =
LiH > NaH > KH > RbH> CsH
๐ด 04. Basic nature of hydroxides=
LIOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH
๐ด 05. Hydration energy=
Li> Na > K> Rb > Cs
๐ด 06. Reducing character=
Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na
๐ด 07. Stability of +3 oxidation state=
B> Al > Ga > In > T1
๐ด 08. Stability of +1 oxidation state= Ga < In < TI
๐ด 09. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides=
B< Al< Ga < In < TI
๐ด 10. Relative strength of Lewis acid= BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
๐ด 11. Ionisation energy=
B> Al <Ga > In <TI
๐ด 12. Reactivity=
C<Si< Ge < Sn <Pb
๐ด 13. Metallic character=
C< Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
๐ด 14. Acidic character of the oxides=
Co2 > SiO2 > Ge02 > SnO2 > PbO2
๐ด 15. Reducing nature of hydrides=
CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
๐ด 16. Thermal stability of tetrahalides=
CCl4> SiCl4> GeCl4> SnCl4 > PbCl4
๐ด 17. Oxidising character of M+4 species=
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
๐ด 18. Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides=
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCI4
๐ด 19. Acidic strength of trioxides=
N203 > P2O3 > As2O3
๐ด 20. Acidic strength of pentoxides=
N2O2 > P2O2> As202 > Sb2O2 > Biฬ202
๐ด 21. Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen=
N2O < NO <N2O3 <N2O4 < N2O5
๐ด 22. Basic nature/ bond angle/ thermal stability and dipole moment of hydrides=
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
๐ด 23. Stability of trihalides of nitrogen=
NF3 > NCl3 > NBr3
๐ด 24.Lewis base strength=
NF3 <NCl3 <NBr3 < NI3
๐ด 25. Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides=
NCl3 > PCI3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
๐ด 26. Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As, and Sb=
PCl3 > ASCl3 > SbCl3
๐ด 27. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
๐ด 28. Melting and boiling point of hydrides=
H2O > H2Te > H2Se >H2S
๐ด 29. Volatility of hydrides=
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S
๐ด 30. Reducing nature of hydrides=
H2S < H2Se < H2Te
๐ด 31. Covalent character of hydrides=
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
๐ด 32. The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation state)=
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2
SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
๐ด 33. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)=
SO < SO2 < SO3
SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2
๐ด 34. Bond energy of halogens=
Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
๐ด 35. Solubility of halogen in water =
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
๐ด 36. Oxidising power=
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
๐ด 37. Enthalpy of hydration of X ion=
F- > Cl- > Br- >I-
๐ด 38. Reactivity of halogens:=
F> Cl> Br > I
๐ด 39. Ionic character of M-X bond in halides
= M-F > M-Cl > MBr > M-I
๐ด 40. Reducing character of X ion:=
I- > Br- > Cl- > F-
๐ด 41. Acidic strength of halogen acids=
HI > HBr > HCI > HF
๐ด 42. Reducing property of hydrogen halides
= HF < HCL < HBr < HI
๐ด 43. Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
= Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl206 > Cl2O7
๐ด 44. Decreasing ionic size=
02- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+
๐ด 45. Increasing acidic property=
Na2O3 < MgO < ZnO< P205
๐ด 46. Increasing bond length=
N2 <02 < F2 < CL2
๐ด 47. Increasing size=
Ca2+ < Cl- < S2-
๐ด 48. Increasing acid strength=
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
๐ด 49. Increasing oxidation number of iodine=
HI< I2 <ICl <HIO4
๐ด 50. Increasing thermal stability=
HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3
Forwarded from Garima Goel Official
๐Some Important Increasing Order ๐:
๐ 1. Bond Angle :
(i) CH4 , C2H4 , C2H2
(ii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , CO2
(iii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , BH3
(iv) NO2โ, NO2 , NO2+
(v) H2Se, H2S, H2O
(vi) AsH3 , PH3 , NH3
(vii) PF3 , PCl3 , PBr3 , PI3
(viii) NF3 , NCl3
(ix) NF3 , NH3 , NCl3
(x) OF2 , OH2 , Cl2O
๐ 2. Melting Point :
(i) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
(ii) Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be
(iii) CaI2 , CaBr2 , CaCl2 , CaF2
(iv) BeCl2 , MgCl2 , CaCl2 , SrCl2 , BaCl2
(v) NaI, NaBr, NaCl, NaF
(vi) CsCl, RbCl, KCl, NaCl
(vii) AlCl3 , MgCl2 , NaCl
๐ 3.Boiling Point :
(i) PH3 , AsH3 , NH3 , SbH3
(ii) H2S, H2Se, H2O
(iii) HCl, HBr, HI, HF
(iv) NH3 , HF, H2O
(v) He, Ne, Ar, Kr
(vi) H2O, D2O
(vii) H2 , Cl2 , Br2
๐ 4.Dipole moments :
(i) CCl4 , CHCl3 , CH2Cl2 ,CH3Cl
(ii) NF3 , NH3 , H2O, HF
(iii) Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene
(iv) p, m, o-dichlorobenzene
(v) CH3I, CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl
(vi) NH3 , SO2 , H2O, HF
(vii) H2S, H2O
(viii) HI, HBr, HCl, HF
(ix) PH3 , ASH3 , SbH3 , NH3
(x) H2O, H2O2
๐ 1. Bond Angle :
(i) CH4 , C2H4 , C2H2
(ii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , CO2
(iii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , BH3
(iv) NO2โ, NO2 , NO2+
(v) H2Se, H2S, H2O
(vi) AsH3 , PH3 , NH3
(vii) PF3 , PCl3 , PBr3 , PI3
(viii) NF3 , NCl3
(ix) NF3 , NH3 , NCl3
(x) OF2 , OH2 , Cl2O
๐ 2. Melting Point :
(i) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
(ii) Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be
(iii) CaI2 , CaBr2 , CaCl2 , CaF2
(iv) BeCl2 , MgCl2 , CaCl2 , SrCl2 , BaCl2
(v) NaI, NaBr, NaCl, NaF
(vi) CsCl, RbCl, KCl, NaCl
(vii) AlCl3 , MgCl2 , NaCl
๐ 3.Boiling Point :
(i) PH3 , AsH3 , NH3 , SbH3
(ii) H2S, H2Se, H2O
(iii) HCl, HBr, HI, HF
(iv) NH3 , HF, H2O
(v) He, Ne, Ar, Kr
(vi) H2O, D2O
(vii) H2 , Cl2 , Br2
๐ 4.Dipole moments :
(i) CCl4 , CHCl3 , CH2Cl2 ,CH3Cl
(ii) NF3 , NH3 , H2O, HF
(iii) Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene
(iv) p, m, o-dichlorobenzene
(v) CH3I, CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl
(vi) NH3 , SO2 , H2O, HF
(vii) H2S, H2O
(viii) HI, HBr, HCl, HF
(ix) PH3 , ASH3 , SbH3 , NH3
(x) H2O, H2O2
โป๏ธImportant Notes - Electrochemical Cellsโป๏ธ
โบ An electrochemical cell can convert electrical energy to chemical energy and can also convert electrical energy to chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells- Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell.
โบ Cathodes are usually metal electrodes. It is the electrode where reduction takes place. The cathode is the positive electrode in a galvanic cell and a negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. Electrons move into the cathode.
โบ A half-cell is half of an electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic), where either oxidation or reduction occurs. At equilibrium, there is no transfer of electrons across the half cells. Therefore, the potential difference between them is nil.
โบ A salt bridge is a device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (a type of electrochemical cell). Strong electrolytes are generally used to make the salt bridges in electrochemical cells. Since ZnSO4 is not a strong electrolyte, it is not used to make salt bridges.
โบ Emf of a cell is equal to the maximum potential difference across its electrodes, which occurs when no current is drawn through the cell. It can also be defined as the net voltage between the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
โบ Cell potential is an intensive property as it is independent of the amount of material present. Gibbs free energy is defined for an electrochemical cell and is an extensive property as it depends on the quantity of the material.
โบ Electrode potential is the tendency of an electrode to accept or to lose electrons. Electrode potential depends on the nature of the electrode, temperature of the solution and the concentration of metal ions in the solution. It doesnโt depend on the size of the electrode.
โบ The salt bridge connects the two half-cell solutions to complete the circuit of the electrochemical cell. The electrolytes of the salt bridge are generally prepared in agar-agar or gelatin so that the electrolytes are kept in a semi-solid phase and do not mix with the half-cell solutions and interfere with the electrochemical reaction.
โบ A salt bridge is a junction that connects the anodic and cathodic compartments in a cell or electrolytic solution. It maintains electrical neutrality within the internal circuit, preventing the cell from rapidly running its reaction to equilibrium.
โบ A Voltaic or Galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells are used to convert light energy into electrical energy. An Electrolytic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy. A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity.
โบ For all spontaneous chemical reactions, the change in Gibbs free energy (ฮGยฐ) is always negative. For a spontaneous reaction in an electrolytic cell, the cell potential (Eยฐcell) should be positive.
โบ In an electrochemical cell, when an opposing externally potential is applied and increased slowly, the reaction continues to take place. When the external potential is equal to the potential of the cell, the reaction stops. Once the externally applied potential is greater than the potential of the cell, the reaction goes in the opposite direction and the cell behaves like an electrolytic cell.
โบ Primary cells cannot be used again and again. Since there is no fluid inside, these cells are also known as dry cells. The internal resistance is high and the chemical reaction is irreversible. Their initial cost is cheap.
โบ A secondary battery (a series of cells) is one which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times. Nickel-cadmium cell, Lead storage cell and Mercury cell are examples of secondary cells. Leclanche cell is an example of a primary cell.
โบ An electrochemical cell can convert electrical energy to chemical energy and can also convert electrical energy to chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells- Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell.
โบ Cathodes are usually metal electrodes. It is the electrode where reduction takes place. The cathode is the positive electrode in a galvanic cell and a negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. Electrons move into the cathode.
โบ A half-cell is half of an electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic), where either oxidation or reduction occurs. At equilibrium, there is no transfer of electrons across the half cells. Therefore, the potential difference between them is nil.
โบ A salt bridge is a device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (a type of electrochemical cell). Strong electrolytes are generally used to make the salt bridges in electrochemical cells. Since ZnSO4 is not a strong electrolyte, it is not used to make salt bridges.
โบ Emf of a cell is equal to the maximum potential difference across its electrodes, which occurs when no current is drawn through the cell. It can also be defined as the net voltage between the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
โบ Cell potential is an intensive property as it is independent of the amount of material present. Gibbs free energy is defined for an electrochemical cell and is an extensive property as it depends on the quantity of the material.
โบ Electrode potential is the tendency of an electrode to accept or to lose electrons. Electrode potential depends on the nature of the electrode, temperature of the solution and the concentration of metal ions in the solution. It doesnโt depend on the size of the electrode.
โบ The salt bridge connects the two half-cell solutions to complete the circuit of the electrochemical cell. The electrolytes of the salt bridge are generally prepared in agar-agar or gelatin so that the electrolytes are kept in a semi-solid phase and do not mix with the half-cell solutions and interfere with the electrochemical reaction.
โบ A salt bridge is a junction that connects the anodic and cathodic compartments in a cell or electrolytic solution. It maintains electrical neutrality within the internal circuit, preventing the cell from rapidly running its reaction to equilibrium.
โบ A Voltaic or Galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells are used to convert light energy into electrical energy. An Electrolytic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy. A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing agent into electricity.
โบ For all spontaneous chemical reactions, the change in Gibbs free energy (ฮGยฐ) is always negative. For a spontaneous reaction in an electrolytic cell, the cell potential (Eยฐcell) should be positive.
โบ In an electrochemical cell, when an opposing externally potential is applied and increased slowly, the reaction continues to take place. When the external potential is equal to the potential of the cell, the reaction stops. Once the externally applied potential is greater than the potential of the cell, the reaction goes in the opposite direction and the cell behaves like an electrolytic cell.
โบ Primary cells cannot be used again and again. Since there is no fluid inside, these cells are also known as dry cells. The internal resistance is high and the chemical reaction is irreversible. Their initial cost is cheap.
โบ A secondary battery (a series of cells) is one which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times. Nickel-cadmium cell, Lead storage cell and Mercury cell are examples of secondary cells. Leclanche cell is an example of a primary cell.
โญ๏ธAlgebra - Revision Notes on Permutationsโญ๏ธ
โThe concept of permutation is used for the arrangement of objects in a specific order i.e. whenever the order is important, permutation is used.
โThe total number of permutations on a set of n objects is given by n! and is denoted as nPn = n!
โThe total number of permutations on a set of n objects taken r at a time is given by nPr = n!/ (n-r)!
โThe number of ways of arranging n objects of which r are the same is given by n!/ r!
โIf we wish to arrange a total of n objects, out of which โpโ are of one type, q of second type are alike, and r of a third kind are same, then such a computation is done as n!/p!q!r!
โAl most all permutation questions involve putting things in order from a line where the order matters. For example ABC is a different permutation to ACB.
โThe number of permutations of n distinct objects when a particular object is not to be considered in the arrangement is given by n-1Pr
โThe number of permutations of n distinct objects when a specific object is to be always included in the arrangement is given by r.n-1Pr-1.
โIf we need to compute the number of permutations of n different objects, out of which r have to be selected and each object has the probability of occurring once, twice or thriceโฆ up to r times in any arrangement is given by (n)r.
โCircular permutation is used when some arrangement is to be made in the form of a ring or circle.
โWhen โnโ different or unlike objects are to be arranged in a ring in such a way that the clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are different, then the number of such arrangements is given by (n โ 1)!
โIf n persons are to be seated around a round table in such a way that no person has similar neighbor then it is given as ยฝ (n โ 1)!
โThe number of necklaces formed with n beads of different colors = ยฝ (n โ 1)!
โnP0 =1
โnP1 = n
โnPn = n!/(n-n)! = n! /0! = n! /1= n!
โThe concept of permutation is used for the arrangement of objects in a specific order i.e. whenever the order is important, permutation is used.
โThe total number of permutations on a set of n objects is given by n! and is denoted as nPn = n!
โThe total number of permutations on a set of n objects taken r at a time is given by nPr = n!/ (n-r)!
โThe number of ways of arranging n objects of which r are the same is given by n!/ r!
โIf we wish to arrange a total of n objects, out of which โpโ are of one type, q of second type are alike, and r of a third kind are same, then such a computation is done as n!/p!q!r!
โAl most all permutation questions involve putting things in order from a line where the order matters. For example ABC is a different permutation to ACB.
โThe number of permutations of n distinct objects when a particular object is not to be considered in the arrangement is given by n-1Pr
โThe number of permutations of n distinct objects when a specific object is to be always included in the arrangement is given by r.n-1Pr-1.
โIf we need to compute the number of permutations of n different objects, out of which r have to be selected and each object has the probability of occurring once, twice or thriceโฆ up to r times in any arrangement is given by (n)r.
โCircular permutation is used when some arrangement is to be made in the form of a ring or circle.
โWhen โnโ different or unlike objects are to be arranged in a ring in such a way that the clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are different, then the number of such arrangements is given by (n โ 1)!
โIf n persons are to be seated around a round table in such a way that no person has similar neighbor then it is given as ยฝ (n โ 1)!
โThe number of necklaces formed with n beads of different colors = ยฝ (n โ 1)!
โnP0 =1
โnP1 = n
โnPn = n!/(n-n)! = n! /0! = n! /1= n!
๐ฏImportant Points of NCERT ๐ฏ
๐1. The world's first National Park (America) โ Yellow stone National Park
๐2. India's first National Park โ Jim Corbett National Park โ Nainital (Uttaranchal)
๐3. Smallest tiger reserve in India โ Ranthambore National Park - Sawaimadhopur (Rajasthan).
๐4. Largest Tiger reserve in India โ Nagarjuna Sagar Saisailum Sanctuary - Guntoor - Andhra Pradesh.
๐5. Nandan-Kanan zoo (Bhubaneshwar - Orissa) is known for - White tiger.
๐Some Important Info.๐ โ๏ธ
(i) National Forest Policy revised in โ 1988.
(ii) Biodiversity act of India was passed by the Parliament in the year-2002
(iii) Forest Actโ1927.
(iv) Biosphere Reserve Schemeโ 1986
๐2. Wild life protection act 1972 (Revised in 1991) :
๐1. The world's first National Park (America) โ Yellow stone National Park
๐2. India's first National Park โ Jim Corbett National Park โ Nainital (Uttaranchal)
๐3. Smallest tiger reserve in India โ Ranthambore National Park - Sawaimadhopur (Rajasthan).
๐4. Largest Tiger reserve in India โ Nagarjuna Sagar Saisailum Sanctuary - Guntoor - Andhra Pradesh.
๐5. Nandan-Kanan zoo (Bhubaneshwar - Orissa) is known for - White tiger.
๐Some Important Info.๐ โ๏ธ
(i) National Forest Policy revised in โ 1988.
(ii) Biodiversity act of India was passed by the Parliament in the year-2002
(iii) Forest Actโ1927.
(iv) Biosphere Reserve Schemeโ 1986
๐2. Wild life protection act 1972 (Revised in 1991) :
โก๏ธDifference between Fimbriae and Pili
๐ท The fimbriae differ from the pili in the following ways:
ใฝ๏ธPili are fine hair like microfibers having pilin โ a thick tubular structure while the fimbriae are tiny bristle-like fibers emerging from the surface of the bacterial cells
ใฝ๏ธPili are longer than fimbriae
Occurrence of the fimbriae in each cell is about 200-400 while the occurrence of pili are lesser than one to ten every cell
ใฝ๏ธFimbriae are found in the both the gram negative and positive bacteria both, pili are present in the gram negative bacteria only
ใฝ๏ธThe fimbriae are composed of fibrillin protein while the pilin protein makes up the pili
ใฝ๏ธThe fimbriae are less rigid compared to the pili
ใฝ๏ธThe formation of fimbriae is administered by the bacterial genes in the nucleoid area while the pili is administered by the plasmid genes
ใฝ๏ธFimbriae plays a role in attaching cells to the surface while pili are critical in bacterial conjugation
๐ท The fimbriae differ from the pili in the following ways:
ใฝ๏ธPili are fine hair like microfibers having pilin โ a thick tubular structure while the fimbriae are tiny bristle-like fibers emerging from the surface of the bacterial cells
ใฝ๏ธPili are longer than fimbriae
Occurrence of the fimbriae in each cell is about 200-400 while the occurrence of pili are lesser than one to ten every cell
ใฝ๏ธFimbriae are found in the both the gram negative and positive bacteria both, pili are present in the gram negative bacteria only
ใฝ๏ธThe fimbriae are composed of fibrillin protein while the pilin protein makes up the pili
ใฝ๏ธThe fimbriae are less rigid compared to the pili
ใฝ๏ธThe formation of fimbriae is administered by the bacterial genes in the nucleoid area while the pili is administered by the plasmid genes
ใฝ๏ธFimbriae plays a role in attaching cells to the surface while pili are critical in bacterial conjugation
Forwarded from Arjuna Prayas Neet 2025 PW Lectures
๐๐ค๐ง๐ฅ๐๐ค๐ก๐ค๐๐ฎ ๐๐ช๐ง๐ฉ๐๐๐ง:-
โUnderground Stems:-
The stem of some plants lie below the soil surface. They are non-green, store food as means of perennation and vegetative propagation.
They are of following types:-
(a) Rhizome It is a prostrate thick stem growing horizontally beneath the soil surface. It has distinct nodes and internodes. The. nodes bear small scale leaves with buds in their axils, e.g., Zingiber (ginger officinale), Curcuma domestica (turmeric).
(b) Suckers These are non-green slender stem that grows horizontally in the soil and ultimately comes out to form a new aerial shoot. Each sucker contains one or more nodes with scale leaves and axillary buds, e.g., Mentha (podina), Chrysanthemum (guldaudi).
(c) Corm It is a swollen condensed form of rhizome which grows in the vertical direction in the soil. It stores a large amount of food, e.g., Amorphophallus, Colocasia (taro).
(d) Tuber It is a swollen end of underground stem branches. Each tuber has many notches on the surface called eyes or buds, which grow into new plants, e.g, Solanum tuberosum (potato).
(e) Bulb It is a highly reduced disc like stem. It bears a large number of fibrous adventitious roots at its base. Leaf bases form bulblets. The bulblets grow into new plants, e.g., Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic).
โUnderground Stems:-
The stem of some plants lie below the soil surface. They are non-green, store food as means of perennation and vegetative propagation.
They are of following types:-
(a) Rhizome It is a prostrate thick stem growing horizontally beneath the soil surface. It has distinct nodes and internodes. The. nodes bear small scale leaves with buds in their axils, e.g., Zingiber (ginger officinale), Curcuma domestica (turmeric).
(b) Suckers These are non-green slender stem that grows horizontally in the soil and ultimately comes out to form a new aerial shoot. Each sucker contains one or more nodes with scale leaves and axillary buds, e.g., Mentha (podina), Chrysanthemum (guldaudi).
(c) Corm It is a swollen condensed form of rhizome which grows in the vertical direction in the soil. It stores a large amount of food, e.g., Amorphophallus, Colocasia (taro).
(d) Tuber It is a swollen end of underground stem branches. Each tuber has many notches on the surface called eyes or buds, which grow into new plants, e.g, Solanum tuberosum (potato).
(e) Bulb It is a highly reduced disc like stem. It bears a large number of fibrous adventitious roots at its base. Leaf bases form bulblets. The bulblets grow into new plants, e.g., Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic).
Forwarded from Garima Goel Official
IMP TOPIC ....๐ฅ
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ........โ๐งช
Chromosomal theory of inheritance was given by Walter Sutton in 1902. This theory also explains the linear structure of chromosomes with genes in particular sites which was mentioned as loci while Boveri also studied this theory separately. So, this theory is also known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. According to this theory-
(i) Genes are found at specific locations on the chromosomes.
(ii) During meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate.
(iii) After fertilization the number of chromosomes becomes diploid.
(iv) Chromosomes segregate as well as assort independently.
Mutation...๐งถ
The sudden changes in the sequence of DNA are known as mutations. The changes in the DNA may be heritable and will be passed onto the next generations affecting both the genotype, as well as the phenotype of an individual. The different types of mutation are frameshift mutations, insertions, deletions, duplications, substitutions, etc. Mutations may be harmful or may not affect at all.
(i) The addition or deletion of DNA bases will lead to changes in the reading frame called the Frameshift mutations.
(ii) The addition of DNA bases is known as insertions.
(iii) Removal of DNA bases is known as deletions.
(iv) If a piece of DNA is copied for more than one time is known as duplication.
Thus, these mutations will lead to a change in the DNA sequence resulting in the formation of the wrong protein.
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ........โ๐งช
Chromosomal theory of inheritance was given by Walter Sutton in 1902. This theory also explains the linear structure of chromosomes with genes in particular sites which was mentioned as loci while Boveri also studied this theory separately. So, this theory is also known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. According to this theory-
(i) Genes are found at specific locations on the chromosomes.
(ii) During meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate.
(iii) After fertilization the number of chromosomes becomes diploid.
(iv) Chromosomes segregate as well as assort independently.
Mutation...๐งถ
The sudden changes in the sequence of DNA are known as mutations. The changes in the DNA may be heritable and will be passed onto the next generations affecting both the genotype, as well as the phenotype of an individual. The different types of mutation are frameshift mutations, insertions, deletions, duplications, substitutions, etc. Mutations may be harmful or may not affect at all.
(i) The addition or deletion of DNA bases will lead to changes in the reading frame called the Frameshift mutations.
(ii) The addition of DNA bases is known as insertions.
(iii) Removal of DNA bases is known as deletions.
(iv) If a piece of DNA is copied for more than one time is known as duplication.
Thus, these mutations will lead to a change in the DNA sequence resulting in the formation of the wrong protein.
Movement and locomotion skeletal system:-
1. Skull bones
2. Vertebral column
3. Sternum
4. Ribs
5. Fore limbs , Hind limbs
6. Girdles
7. Joints
8. Disorders of bones
P.S. hyoid bone is only bone which is not attached with any other one of the body.
Tongue is attached with hyoid boneโจ ๐ธ
1. Skull bones
2. Vertebral column
3. Sternum
4. Ribs
5. Fore limbs , Hind limbs
6. Girdles
7. Joints
8. Disorders of bones
P.S. hyoid bone is only bone which is not attached with any other one of the body.
Tongue is attached with hyoid boneโจ ๐ธ