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👉ስለ Contour Lines አብረን እንይ
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▶️Characteristics of contour lines are:
1. Connect point of equal elevation.
2. Always connects close contour lines. This is not always visible on the map.
3. They never cross, split or intersect – at a cliff they might merge.
4. Evenly spaced contour lines indicate a uniform slope.
5. Closely spaced contour lines show a steep slope.
6. Widely spaced contour lines show gentle slope.
7. Uneven spacing – irregular or variable slope.
9. Closed contours with arrow in the centre represent depressions.
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▶️Other characteristics of contour lines are:
- Horizontal distance between contour lines is inversely proportional to slope.
- Uniform slopes have uniformly spaced lines.
- Along plane surfaces, contour lines are straight and parallel.
- Contour lines are perpendicular to lines of steepest slopes.
- For summits or depressions, contour lines most close upon themselves.
- A single contour line can not lie between two lines of higher or lower elevation.
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▶️There are some basic rules for contour lines:
1. A contour line must never split or divide.
2. A contour line must never simply end, except at the edge of the map.
3. A contour line must represent one and only one elevation.
4. A contour line may never intersect other contour lines. Overhanging cliffs are
the only exception.
5. Concentric circles of contour lines indicate a hilltop or mountain peak.
6. Concentric circles of hatched contour lines indicate a closed depression.
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👉Shear Strength of Soil by Vane Shear Test

✅Apparatus

✍Apparatus required for vane shear test are:

✔️Vane shear apparatus soil specimen container vernier callipers.

✔️Vane shear apparatus consists high tensile steel rod to which four steel blades (vanes) are fixed at right angles to each other at the bottom of rod.



↪️Procedure of Vane Shear Test

Test procedure of vane shear test contains following steps:

Clean the vane shear apparatus and apply grease to the lead screw for better movement of handles. Take the soil specimen in container which is generally 75 mm in height and 37.5 mm in diameter. Level the soil surface on the top and mount the container on the base of vane shear test apparatus using screws provided. Lower the vane gradually into the soil specimen until the top of vane is at a depth of 10 to 20 mm below the top of soil specimen.
Note down the reading of pointer on circular graduated scale which is initial reading. Rotate the vane inside the soil specimen using torque applying handle at a rate of 0.1o per second. When the specimen fails, the strain indicator pointer will move backwards on the circular graduated scale and at this point stop the test and note down the final reading of pointer. The difference between Initial and final readings is nothing but the angle of torque. Repeat the procedure on two more soil specimens and calculate the average shear strength value. Measure the diameter and height of vane using Vernier callipers. Sensitivity of given soil sample is determined by repeating the above test procedure on remolded soil which is nothing but soil obtained after rapid stirring of vane in the above test.

✔️Sensitivity of soil = undisturbed shear strength/ remolded shear strength.

✔️Observations and Calculations of Vane Shear Test

Shear strength of given soil sample is calculated from below observations.

Diameter of vane, D = _ cm Height of vane, H = __ cm Torque, T = (Spring constant /180)*(initial reading-final reading)

✔️Shear strength of soil (S) is calculated from below formula.
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Design Of Columns As Per ACI 

1- Maximum and Minimum Reinforcement Ratio
The minimum reinforcement ratio of 1 % is to be used in tied or spirally reinforced columns. This minimum reinforcement is needed to safeguard against any bending, reduce the effect of shrinkage and creep and enhance the ductility of columns.

2- Minimum Number of Reinforcing Bars
Minimum four bars within rectangular or circular sections; or one bar in each corner of the cross-section for other shapes and a minimum of six bars in spirally reinforced columns should be used.

3- Clear Distance between Reinforcing Bars
For tied or spirally reinforced columns, clear distance between bars should not be less than the larger of 150 times bar diameter or 4 cm.

4- Concrete Protection Cover
The clear concrete cover should not be less than 4 cm for columns not exposed to weather or in contact with the ground. It is essential for protecting the reinforcement from corrosion or fire hazards.

5- Minimum Cross-Sectional Dimensions
For practical considerations, column dimensions can be taken as multiples of 5 cm.

6- Lateral Reinforcement

Ties are effective in restraining the longitudinal bars from buckling out through the surface of the column, holding the reinforcement cage together during the construction process, confining the concrete core and when columns are subjected to horizontal forces, they serve as shear reinforcement. Spirals, on the other hand, serve in addition to these benefits in compensating for the strength loss due to spalling of the outside concrete shell at ultimate column strength
7- Ties
For longitudinal bars, 32 mm or smaller, lateral ties 10 mm in diameter should be used. In some countries, ties of 8 mm dia are used for column construction.


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