السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
أهلاً بيكم ف القناة🤍

محتوى القناة حيكون:

ملاحظات الدكاترة "اللي يقولوا فيها أثناء الشرح" وتنبيهات على النقاط اللي يركزوا عليها هلبا أو أي معلومة إضافية ممكن تبسط المادة وتسهلها علينا.

بعون الله القناة ح يكون هدفها تسهيل المراجعة باش لما تجي تقرا الشيت، تبدأ عندك الملاحظات متع التسجيلات جاهزة، ابحث ع كُل مادة برمزها ب هاشتاق ،غرضنا نساعدوا بعضنا ونطلعوا بأقل الخسائر وأعلى الدرجات إن شاء الله.
انشروا رابط القناة لزملائكم باش الفائدة تعم على الجميع، وربي يوفقنا أجمعين ويفتح علينا فتوح العارفين وتكون سنة تالثة بداية خير علينا.

Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة الأولى



✨شيت الintroduction قالت الدكتورة ف النصفي سؤال أو سؤالين وف الفاينل سؤال✨

🔴Pathology is disease of tissue
🔴Cytology is disease of single cell

🔴الTermمهمات قالت الدكتورة تجيب الTerm وتطلب الmeaningاو تجيب الmeaning وتطلب الterm:
🔴Etiology \Cause of disease

🔴Pathogenesis /Mechanism of disease development

🔴Morphology /Structural changes in cells/tissues

🔴Clinical Manifestations(history)/ Signs and symptoms

🔴Diagnosis /Identification of disease


🔴If a patient presents with hemoptysis (coughing up blood), weight loss, cachexia, loss of appetite, and a history of heavy smoking, and a chest X-ray shows a mass in the upper lobe of the right lung, the most likely diagnosis is lung cancer.
To confirm the diagnosis and determine the histological type of the lung cancer, the next step is to obtain a biopsy for histopathological examination.
There are several types of biopsy that can be performed, including:
•True-cut (core needle) biopsy
•Wedge biopsy
•Lobectomy (removal of a lung lobe)
•Pneumonectomy (removal of an entire lung)

ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية للباثو،أول نصف ساعة كانت ل د. إلهام باقي التسجيل ل د. نيروز ود. نيروز معندناش ملاحظات أو اضافات ف شرحها كُله يلي شرحاته موجود ف الشيت غير زادت 4سلايدات ع شيت السيم لفات وهادم ملاحظات د. إلهام ف محاضرة اليوم ⬇️

Patho| ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية باقي جزئية دكتورة إلهام
ف شيت الintroduction:




🔴Tissue Processing for Histopathology➡️ قالت الدكتورة احفظوهم بالترتيب لأن قالت مرات تجيب سؤال وف الخيارات تلخبط الترتيب متعهم

🔴If the specimen is not preserved in formalin, it will undergo autolysis.
🔴Dehydration removes water from the tissue, allowing it to properly absorb the stain.

🔴If a patient has liver cirrhosis, a liver biopsy is sent to histopathology to determine the stage of fibrosis (how advanced the disease is).
To assess fibrosis, we use Masson’s trichrome stain, not just hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), because trichrome highlights collagen clearly, making fibrosis easier to stage.
🔴If a patient is diabetic and has low immunity, and he comes to the doctor with a history of a nasal mass and is found to have a fungal infection, a biopsy is taken to confirm the fungal infection. However, sometimes fungal infections are not clearly visible with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining, so we use PAS (Periodic Acid–Schiff) stain.

🔴If a patient has lung cancer and you examine the tissue under a microscope, and you want to determine the type of tumor—whether it is adenocarcinoma (a malignant tumor of glandular origin) or squamous carcinoma (a malignant tumor of squamous cells)—what helps us differentiate between them is immunohistochemistry (IHC).
IHC is considered specific for distinguishing between these two types because:
Squamous carcinoma expresses cytokeratin 6.
Adenocarcinoma expresses cytokeratin 7.
Each tumor type binds to its specific antibody.

Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة التالثة

🔴in hyperplasia, the cells are normal in structure and appearance, but their number increases. In contrast, in cancer, the cells are abnormal and uncontrolled. This is the main difference between hyperplasia and cancer.
🔴Before malignant transformation, there may be a stage called premalignant hyperplasia. If this condition persists for a long time, it can progress to malignancy (cancer).

🔴Endometrial hyperplasia usually occurs in women over the age of 40, either before or after menopause.
Other risk factors include:
Obesity
Hypertension
Nulliparity (a woman who has never given birth)
Hormone replacement therapy that contains estrogen only without progesterone
In summary, the main cause of endometrial hyperplasia is unopposed estrogen secretion.
🔴Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia is an example of pathological hyperplasia.
It is a benign condition and does not transform into cancer.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection is called Reactive Follicular Hyperplasia in pathology.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection occurs due to viral or bacterial infections. It leads to enlargement of the lymph nodes .
🔴Bone marrow hyperplasia occurs in prolonged hypoxia, such as in chronic lung conditions, Anemia, or at high altitude.

🔴Brown Atrophy of the Heart is physiological Atrophy occurs with aging. The heart becomes brown in color due to the deposition of the pigment lipofuscin in the cells.
Lipofuscin is produced as a result of free radical injury, but it is considered a non-injurious pigment, meaning it does not damage the cardiac muscle cells.
This pigment is commonly seen during aging and is considered a sign of cellular aging.

🔴Undescended testis is also called cryptorchidism. In this condition, the testis may remain in the abdomen or in the inguinal canal, which are abnormal locations, because normally the testis should be located in the scrotum.
The abdomen and inguinal canal have a higher temperature than the scrotum, which negatively affects the growth and function of the testis. In addition, the blood supply may be inadequate, which can lead to atrophy of the testis.
This condition usually occurs in children and is considered a form of pathological atrophy.

🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is Amyloidosis, which results from the accumulation of amyloid protein.
In amyloidosis, the amyloid is deposited extracellularly, not intracellularly. In the liver, when amyloid accumulates outside the cells, it exerts pressure on the hepatocytes, leading to atrophy.

🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is a Pulsating Aortic Aneurysm.
It mostly affects young males, around the age of 20. The condition begins with dilation of the blood vessel wall. Blood flow may become segmental, leading to the formation of thrombi (blood clots) that remain attached to the vessel wall.
Sometimes, the aneurysm may rupture, causing severe bleeding, which can be fatal. This is considered a medical emergency.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
It occurs in Alzheimer's Disease. In patients with dementia, who experience severe memory loss, parts of the brain undergo atrophy due to loss of neurons and tissue shrinkage.(McQ)
🔴Metaplasia is never physiological; it is always pathological. It occurs as a result of chronic irritation or inflamation.(McQ)
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
An example is the urinary bladder (transitional epithelium) in Bilharzial Cystitis, caused by Schistosoma infection.
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
In the uterine cervix, squamous metaplasia occurs specifically in the endocervix.
The ectocervix is normally lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
The endocervix is lined by glandular columnar epithelium that secretes mucus.
As a result of chronic irritation or infection, the glandular epithelium of the endocervix undergoes metaplasia, transforming into stratified squamous epithelium.

🔴Glandular Metaplasia
An example is the **esophageal mucosa in Barrett's Esophagus, which occurs due to chronic acid reflux from the stomach.
The cause is usually incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Other risk factors include:
Hiatal hernia
Alcohol consumption
Dietary habits, such as frequent intake of spicy or acidic foods
As a result, the normal squamous epithelium of the esophagus transforms into intestinal-type epithelium with goblet cells.
This type of metaplasia is dangerous because it increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer.

🔴Glandular Metaplasia
An example is the gastric mucosa at the edges of a peptic ulcer.
The stomach is normally lined by foveolar-type epithelium, which contains gastric pits and gastric glands.
The most important causes of glandular metaplasia include:
Helicobacter pylori infection
Smoking
Alcohol consumption
Frequent use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and aspirin
As a result, the gastric epithelium may transform into intestinal-type glandular epithelium.
🔴myositis ossificans seen more in athletes and male.
🔴Myositis Ossificans
It most commonly occurs in the biceps, gluteal, and hip muscles.
Initially, the affected muscle is painful, but over time it becomes hard as bone tissue forms within the muscle.
🔴Barrett's Esophagus
In pathology, it is sometimes compared to a salmon because of its appearance, and is therefore called a “salmon patch”.

ملاحظة :الدكتورة ردت ع إستفسار كيف نمط الاسئلة في الإمتحان؟ قالت نمط الاسئلة بيكون MCQ واعطت مثال مثلاً تجيب أسباب الhyperatrophy الphysiological وتحط except ف بتختار الpathological وهكذا نمط باقي الاسئلة..

Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة الرابعة

🔴Cardiac muscle cannot tolerate hypoxia for long; it can only survive for a few minutes it is called minut mainuscsle → muscle survives only minutes / a few minutes.
🔴Free radicals (ROS) are opposed by protective enzymes and antioxidants.
🔴Infarction is ischemia associated with necrosis.
🔴Proteins are important for the cell in the cytoskeleton and structure.
🔴Damage to DNA and proteins, if there is no DNA repair system, can lead to malignancy.
🔴hallmark of irreversible cell damage is Membrane damage.(Important)
🔴Hallmark of reversible cell damage is cellular swelling. (Important)
🔴Reactive Oxygen Species:-
-Suprroxide
-Hydrogen peroxide
-Hydroxyl radical
🔴protective mechanism (McQ):
_Glutathione peroxidases.
_catalase.
_Super oxide dismutase(Sod).
🔴Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is considered carcinogenic.
🔴Fatty change is divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver occurs in conditions such as obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.
🔴Fatty liver is when the liver cells start to develop vacuoles filled with fat.
🔴Fatty liver has a smooth surface, rounded borders,
and a yellow color,On palpation, its consistency feels greasy.