Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Patho| ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية باقي جزئية دكتورة إلهام
ف شيت الintroduction:
🔴Tissue Processing for Histopathology➡️ قالت الدكتورة احفظوهم بالترتيب لأن قالت مرات تجيب سؤال وف الخيارات تلخبط الترتيب متعهم
🔴If the specimen is not preserved in formalin, it will undergo autolysis.
🔴Dehydration removes water from the tissue, allowing it to properly absorb the stain.
🔴If a patient has liver cirrhosis, a liver biopsy is sent to histopathology to determine the stage of fibrosis (how advanced the disease is).
To assess fibrosis, we use Masson’s trichrome stain, not just hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), because trichrome highlights collagen clearly, making fibrosis easier to stage.
🔴If a patient is diabetic and has low immunity, and he comes to the doctor with a history of a nasal mass and is found to have a fungal infection, a biopsy is taken to confirm the fungal infection. However, sometimes fungal infections are not clearly visible with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining, so we use PAS (Periodic Acid–Schiff) stain.
🔴If a patient has lung cancer and you examine the tissue under a microscope, and you want to determine the type of tumor—whether it is adenocarcinoma (a malignant tumor of glandular origin) or squamous carcinoma (a malignant tumor of squamous cells)—what helps us differentiate between them is immunohistochemistry (IHC).
IHC is considered specific for distinguishing between these two types because:
Squamous carcinoma expresses cytokeratin 6.
Adenocarcinoma expresses cytokeratin 7.
Each tumor type binds to its specific antibody.
ف شيت الintroduction:
🔴Tissue Processing for Histopathology➡️ قالت الدكتورة احفظوهم بالترتيب لأن قالت مرات تجيب سؤال وف الخيارات تلخبط الترتيب متعهم
🔴If the specimen is not preserved in formalin, it will undergo autolysis.
🔴Dehydration removes water from the tissue, allowing it to properly absorb the stain.
🔴If a patient has liver cirrhosis, a liver biopsy is sent to histopathology to determine the stage of fibrosis (how advanced the disease is).
To assess fibrosis, we use Masson’s trichrome stain, not just hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), because trichrome highlights collagen clearly, making fibrosis easier to stage.
🔴If a patient is diabetic and has low immunity, and he comes to the doctor with a history of a nasal mass and is found to have a fungal infection, a biopsy is taken to confirm the fungal infection. However, sometimes fungal infections are not clearly visible with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining, so we use PAS (Periodic Acid–Schiff) stain.
🔴If a patient has lung cancer and you examine the tissue under a microscope, and you want to determine the type of tumor—whether it is adenocarcinoma (a malignant tumor of glandular origin) or squamous carcinoma (a malignant tumor of squamous cells)—what helps us differentiate between them is immunohistochemistry (IHC).
IHC is considered specific for distinguishing between these two types because:
Squamous carcinoma expresses cytokeratin 6.
Adenocarcinoma expresses cytokeratin 7.
Each tumor type binds to its specific antibody.
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة التالثة
🔴in hyperplasia, the cells are normal in structure and appearance, but their number increases. In contrast, in cancer, the cells are abnormal and uncontrolled. This is the main difference between hyperplasia and cancer.
🔴Before malignant transformation, there may be a stage called premalignant hyperplasia. If this condition persists for a long time, it can progress to malignancy (cancer).
🔴Endometrial hyperplasia usually occurs in women over the age of 40, either before or after menopause.
Other risk factors include:
Obesity
Hypertension
Nulliparity (a woman who has never given birth)
Hormone replacement therapy that contains estrogen only without progesterone
In summary, the main cause of endometrial hyperplasia is unopposed estrogen secretion.
🔴Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia is an example of pathological hyperplasia.
It is a benign condition and does not transform into cancer.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection is called Reactive Follicular Hyperplasia in pathology.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection occurs due to viral or bacterial infections. It leads to enlargement of the lymph nodes .
🔴Bone marrow hyperplasia occurs in prolonged hypoxia, such as in chronic lung conditions, Anemia, or at high altitude.
🔴Brown Atrophy of the Heart is physiological Atrophy occurs with aging. The heart becomes brown in color due to the deposition of the pigment lipofuscin in the cells.
Lipofuscin is produced as a result of free radical injury, but it is considered a non-injurious pigment, meaning it does not damage the cardiac muscle cells.
This pigment is commonly seen during aging and is considered a sign of cellular aging.
🔴Undescended testis is also called cryptorchidism. In this condition, the testis may remain in the abdomen or in the inguinal canal, which are abnormal locations, because normally the testis should be located in the scrotum.
The abdomen and inguinal canal have a higher temperature than the scrotum, which negatively affects the growth and function of the testis. In addition, the blood supply may be inadequate, which can lead to atrophy of the testis.
This condition usually occurs in children and is considered a form of pathological atrophy.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is Amyloidosis, which results from the accumulation of amyloid protein.
In amyloidosis, the amyloid is deposited extracellularly, not intracellularly. In the liver, when amyloid accumulates outside the cells, it exerts pressure on the hepatocytes, leading to atrophy.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is a Pulsating Aortic Aneurysm.
It mostly affects young males, around the age of 20. The condition begins with dilation of the blood vessel wall. Blood flow may become segmental, leading to the formation of thrombi (blood clots) that remain attached to the vessel wall.
Sometimes, the aneurysm may rupture, causing severe bleeding, which can be fatal. This is considered a medical emergency.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
It occurs in Alzheimer's Disease. In patients with dementia, who experience severe memory loss, parts of the brain undergo atrophy due to loss of neurons and tissue shrinkage.(McQ)
🔴Metaplasia is never physiological; it is always pathological. It occurs as a result of chronic irritation or inflamation.(McQ)
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
An example is the urinary bladder (transitional epithelium) in Bilharzial Cystitis, caused by Schistosoma infection.
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
In the uterine cervix, squamous metaplasia occurs specifically in the endocervix.
The ectocervix is normally lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
The endocervix is lined by glandular columnar epithelium that secretes mucus.
As a result of chronic irritation or infection, the glandular epithelium of the endocervix undergoes metaplasia, transforming into stratified squamous epithelium.
🔴in hyperplasia, the cells are normal in structure and appearance, but their number increases. In contrast, in cancer, the cells are abnormal and uncontrolled. This is the main difference between hyperplasia and cancer.
🔴Before malignant transformation, there may be a stage called premalignant hyperplasia. If this condition persists for a long time, it can progress to malignancy (cancer).
🔴Endometrial hyperplasia usually occurs in women over the age of 40, either before or after menopause.
Other risk factors include:
Obesity
Hypertension
Nulliparity (a woman who has never given birth)
Hormone replacement therapy that contains estrogen only without progesterone
In summary, the main cause of endometrial hyperplasia is unopposed estrogen secretion.
🔴Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia is an example of pathological hyperplasia.
It is a benign condition and does not transform into cancer.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection is called Reactive Follicular Hyperplasia in pathology.
🔴Lymph node hyperplasia during infection occurs due to viral or bacterial infections. It leads to enlargement of the lymph nodes .
🔴Bone marrow hyperplasia occurs in prolonged hypoxia, such as in chronic lung conditions, Anemia, or at high altitude.
🔴Brown Atrophy of the Heart is physiological Atrophy occurs with aging. The heart becomes brown in color due to the deposition of the pigment lipofuscin in the cells.
Lipofuscin is produced as a result of free radical injury, but it is considered a non-injurious pigment, meaning it does not damage the cardiac muscle cells.
This pigment is commonly seen during aging and is considered a sign of cellular aging.
🔴Undescended testis is also called cryptorchidism. In this condition, the testis may remain in the abdomen or in the inguinal canal, which are abnormal locations, because normally the testis should be located in the scrotum.
The abdomen and inguinal canal have a higher temperature than the scrotum, which negatively affects the growth and function of the testis. In addition, the blood supply may be inadequate, which can lead to atrophy of the testis.
This condition usually occurs in children and is considered a form of pathological atrophy.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is Amyloidosis, which results from the accumulation of amyloid protein.
In amyloidosis, the amyloid is deposited extracellularly, not intracellularly. In the liver, when amyloid accumulates outside the cells, it exerts pressure on the hepatocytes, leading to atrophy.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
An example is a Pulsating Aortic Aneurysm.
It mostly affects young males, around the age of 20. The condition begins with dilation of the blood vessel wall. Blood flow may become segmental, leading to the formation of thrombi (blood clots) that remain attached to the vessel wall.
Sometimes, the aneurysm may rupture, causing severe bleeding, which can be fatal. This is considered a medical emergency.
🔴Pressure Atrophy
It occurs in Alzheimer's Disease. In patients with dementia, who experience severe memory loss, parts of the brain undergo atrophy due to loss of neurons and tissue shrinkage.(McQ)
🔴Metaplasia is never physiological; it is always pathological. It occurs as a result of chronic irritation or inflamation.(McQ)
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
An example is the urinary bladder (transitional epithelium) in Bilharzial Cystitis, caused by Schistosoma infection.
🔴Squamous Metaplasia
In the uterine cervix, squamous metaplasia occurs specifically in the endocervix.
The ectocervix is normally lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
The endocervix is lined by glandular columnar epithelium that secretes mucus.
As a result of chronic irritation or infection, the glandular epithelium of the endocervix undergoes metaplasia, transforming into stratified squamous epithelium.
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
🔴Glandular Metaplasia
An example is the **esophageal mucosa in Barrett's Esophagus, which occurs due to chronic acid reflux from the stomach.
The cause is usually incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Other risk factors include:
Hiatal hernia
Alcohol consumption
Dietary habits, such as frequent intake of spicy or acidic foods
As a result, the normal squamous epithelium of the esophagus transforms into intestinal-type epithelium with goblet cells.
This type of metaplasia is dangerous because it increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer.
🔴Glandular Metaplasia
An example is the gastric mucosa at the edges of a peptic ulcer.
The stomach is normally lined by foveolar-type epithelium, which contains gastric pits and gastric glands.
The most important causes of glandular metaplasia include:
Helicobacter pylori infection
Smoking
Alcohol consumption
Frequent use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and aspirin
As a result, the gastric epithelium may transform into intestinal-type glandular epithelium.
🔴myositis ossificans seen more in athletes and male.
🔴Myositis Ossificans
It most commonly occurs in the biceps, gluteal, and hip muscles.
Initially, the affected muscle is painful, but over time it becomes hard as bone tissue forms within the muscle.
🔴Barrett's Esophagus
In pathology, it is sometimes compared to a salmon because of its appearance, and is therefore called a “salmon patch”.
An example is the **esophageal mucosa in Barrett's Esophagus, which occurs due to chronic acid reflux from the stomach.
The cause is usually incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Other risk factors include:
Hiatal hernia
Alcohol consumption
Dietary habits, such as frequent intake of spicy or acidic foods
As a result, the normal squamous epithelium of the esophagus transforms into intestinal-type epithelium with goblet cells.
This type of metaplasia is dangerous because it increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer.
🔴Glandular Metaplasia
An example is the gastric mucosa at the edges of a peptic ulcer.
The stomach is normally lined by foveolar-type epithelium, which contains gastric pits and gastric glands.
The most important causes of glandular metaplasia include:
Helicobacter pylori infection
Smoking
Alcohol consumption
Frequent use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and aspirin
As a result, the gastric epithelium may transform into intestinal-type glandular epithelium.
🔴myositis ossificans seen more in athletes and male.
🔴Myositis Ossificans
It most commonly occurs in the biceps, gluteal, and hip muscles.
Initially, the affected muscle is painful, but over time it becomes hard as bone tissue forms within the muscle.
🔴Barrett's Esophagus
In pathology, it is sometimes compared to a salmon because of its appearance, and is therefore called a “salmon patch”.
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Dania Fathi
Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة التالثة 🔴in hyperplasia, the cells are normal in structure and appearance, but their number increases. In contrast, in cancer, the cells are abnormal and uncontrolled. This is the main difference between hyperplasia and cancer. 🔴Before…
ملاحظة :الدكتورة ردت ع إستفسار كيف نمط الاسئلة في الإمتحان؟ قالت نمط الاسئلة بيكون MCQ واعطت مثال مثلاً تجيب أسباب الhyperatrophy الphysiological وتحط except ف بتختار الpathological وهكذا نمط باقي الاسئلة..
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة الرابعة
🔴Cardiac muscle cannot tolerate hypoxia for long; it can only survive for a few minutes it is called minut mainuscsle → muscle survives only minutes / a few minutes.
🔴Free radicals (ROS) are opposed by protective enzymes and antioxidants.
🔴Infarction is ischemia associated with necrosis.
🔴Proteins are important for the cell in the cytoskeleton and structure.
🔴Damage to DNA and proteins, if there is no DNA repair system, can lead to malignancy.
🔴hallmark of irreversible cell damage is Membrane damage.(Important)
🔴Hallmark of reversible cell damage is cellular swelling. (Important)
🔴Reactive Oxygen Species:-
-Suprroxide
-Hydrogen peroxide
-Hydroxyl radical
🔴protective mechanism (McQ):
_Glutathione peroxidases.
_catalase.
_Super oxide dismutase(Sod).
🔴Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is considered carcinogenic.
🔴Fatty change is divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver occurs in conditions such as obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.
🔴Fatty liver is when the liver cells start to develop vacuoles filled with fat.
🔴Fatty liver has a smooth surface, rounded borders,
and a yellow color,On palpation, its consistency feels greasy.
🔴Cardiac muscle cannot tolerate hypoxia for long; it can only survive for a few minutes it is called minut mainuscsle → muscle survives only minutes / a few minutes.
🔴Free radicals (ROS) are opposed by protective enzymes and antioxidants.
🔴Infarction is ischemia associated with necrosis.
🔴Proteins are important for the cell in the cytoskeleton and structure.
🔴Damage to DNA and proteins, if there is no DNA repair system, can lead to malignancy.
🔴hallmark of irreversible cell damage is Membrane damage.(Important)
🔴Hallmark of reversible cell damage is cellular swelling. (Important)
🔴Reactive Oxygen Species:-
-Suprroxide
-Hydrogen peroxide
-Hydroxyl radical
🔴protective mechanism (McQ):
_Glutathione peroxidases.
_catalase.
_Super oxide dismutase(Sod).
🔴Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is considered carcinogenic.
🔴Fatty change is divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver occurs in conditions such as obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.
🔴Fatty liver is when the liver cells start to develop vacuoles filled with fat.
🔴Fatty liver has a smooth surface, rounded borders,
and a yellow color,On palpation, its consistency feels greasy.
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Patho|المحاضرة الخامسة
ملاحظات المحاضرة :
🔴Necrosis is a passive process that usually affects a large group of cells. The cell membrane ruptures, which leads to the release of cellular contents and causes inflammation. (McQ)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis is an active process that affects a small group of cells. The cell membrane remains intact and does not rupture, so inflammation does not occur.(McQ).❗❗.
🔴Heterolysis occurs due to enzymes released from nearby inflammatory cells.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis Characteristic of infarcts (sudden ischemia) in
all-solid organs (heart, kidney…) except brain .(MCQ)❗❗.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis The protein denaturation process, is more
prominent than enzymatic break down (autolysis) but in Liquefactive necrosis Enzymatic breakdown (cell lysis) being predominant over protein denaturation.(McQ)❗❗.
🔴Kidney infarction – Coagulative necrosis
The infarcted area in the kidney is usually pyramidal in shape. The peripheral (base) is directed toward the renal capsule, while the apex points toward the hilum, where the renal artery and vein enter the kidney.
The infarcted area appears wedge-shaped (pyramidal), like a triangle.
Characteristics:
The color is pale yellowish-white because the cells are dead.
The surrounding zone appears red due to inflammation and congestion.
On palpation, it has a firm consistency.
If the infarction is recent, it is usually without swelling.
If the infarction is old, it becomes more firm due to fibrosis.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis:
In gross appearance, it forms a cavity (empty space) filled with liquid material.
In the brain, it may appear as a cystic mass due to the action of lysosomal enzymes that digest the dead tissue.
On palpation, the tissue has a soft consistency.
The surrounding zone appears red because of hyperemia and inflammation.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis seen in Pyogenic Abscess(bacteria or fungi onfection).
🔴Caseous necrosis is seen most often in tuberculosis and is considered a chronic specific type of necrosis.
🔴Tuberculosis in the lung:
It can be seen without a microscope (grossly).
It appears as a cheese-like material, which is characteristic of caseous necrosis.
🔴Fat Necrosis:
Enzymatic fat necrosis occurs due to the escape of pancreatic enzymes (lipase). These enzymes digest the pancreas itself and also digest the surrounding peritoneal fat cells, which occurs in acute pancreatitis. This condition may occur due to alcoholism.
🔴Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in malignant hypertension, especially in the renal arterioles.
ملاحظات المحاضرة :
🔴Necrosis is a passive process that usually affects a large group of cells. The cell membrane ruptures, which leads to the release of cellular contents and causes inflammation. (McQ)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis is an active process that affects a small group of cells. The cell membrane remains intact and does not rupture, so inflammation does not occur.(McQ).❗❗.
🔴Heterolysis occurs due to enzymes released from nearby inflammatory cells.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis Characteristic of infarcts (sudden ischemia) in
all-solid organs (heart, kidney…) except brain .(MCQ)❗❗.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis The protein denaturation process, is more
prominent than enzymatic break down (autolysis) but in Liquefactive necrosis Enzymatic breakdown (cell lysis) being predominant over protein denaturation.(McQ)❗❗.
🔴Kidney infarction – Coagulative necrosis
The infarcted area in the kidney is usually pyramidal in shape. The peripheral (base) is directed toward the renal capsule, while the apex points toward the hilum, where the renal artery and vein enter the kidney.
The infarcted area appears wedge-shaped (pyramidal), like a triangle.
Characteristics:
The color is pale yellowish-white because the cells are dead.
The surrounding zone appears red due to inflammation and congestion.
On palpation, it has a firm consistency.
If the infarction is recent, it is usually without swelling.
If the infarction is old, it becomes more firm due to fibrosis.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis:
In gross appearance, it forms a cavity (empty space) filled with liquid material.
In the brain, it may appear as a cystic mass due to the action of lysosomal enzymes that digest the dead tissue.
On palpation, the tissue has a soft consistency.
The surrounding zone appears red because of hyperemia and inflammation.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis seen in Pyogenic Abscess(bacteria or fungi onfection).
🔴Caseous necrosis is seen most often in tuberculosis and is considered a chronic specific type of necrosis.
🔴Tuberculosis in the lung:
It can be seen without a microscope (grossly).
It appears as a cheese-like material, which is characteristic of caseous necrosis.
🔴Fat Necrosis:
Enzymatic fat necrosis occurs due to the escape of pancreatic enzymes (lipase). These enzymes digest the pancreas itself and also digest the surrounding peritoneal fat cells, which occurs in acute pancreatitis. This condition may occur due to alcoholism.
🔴Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in malignant hypertension, especially in the renal arterioles.
❤1
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة السادسة
🔴Apoptosis It is either physiologic or pathologic but necrosis is pathological process only (never physiological).(Mcq)❗❗
🔴Caspases (especially caspase-8) is called procaspases.
🔴The intrinsic pathway
The intrinsic pathway is initiated by internal cellular signals, such as DNA damage, viral infection, oxidative stress, or absence of growth factors (GF). These signals lead to inactivation and loss of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL(x_large).
The Bcl-2 family proteins include both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins. They work together to maintain a balance in the regulation of apoptosi.
🔴The central role that completes the process of apoptosis is played by cytochrome .(Mcq)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis It is either physiologic or pathologic but necrosis is pathological process only (never physiological).(Mcq)❗❗
🔴Caspases (especially caspase-8) is called procaspases.
🔴The intrinsic pathway
The intrinsic pathway is initiated by internal cellular signals, such as DNA damage, viral infection, oxidative stress, or absence of growth factors (GF). These signals lead to inactivation and loss of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL(x_large).
The Bcl-2 family proteins include both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins. They work together to maintain a balance in the regulation of apoptosi.
🔴The central role that completes the process of apoptosis is played by cytochrome .(Mcq)❗❗.
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
السلام عليكم
بالنسبة ل ملاحظات تسجيلات محاضرات الفارما، المحاضرة الأولى تعتبر الدكتورة مشرحتش فيها أعطت مقدمة ع المادة وقالت إن وقت تشرح بتنبه ع حاجات Mcq وبتجيبهم ف الامتحان وبصفة عامة د. فاطمة معندهاش زيادات غير تنبه ع نقاط الMcq وهادم ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية بحكم الاولى مفيهاش⬇️:
بالنسبة ل ملاحظات تسجيلات محاضرات الفارما، المحاضرة الأولى تعتبر الدكتورة مشرحتش فيها أعطت مقدمة ع المادة وقالت إن وقت تشرح بتنبه ع حاجات Mcq وبتجيبهم ف الامتحان وبصفة عامة د. فاطمة معندهاش زيادات غير تنبه ع نقاط الMcq وهادم ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية بحكم الاولى مفيهاش⬇️:
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Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Pharma💊| ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية
هذه التعريفات قالت الدكتورة عليهم✨هدية MCQ✨:
🔴Pharmacokinetics ➡️Deals with ADME process i.e. what the body does to the drug .
🔴Pharmacodynamics➡️Deals with the biological effect of the drug ,its mechanism of action and relation b/w its plasma concentration ,its response and
duration of action i.e. What the drug does to the body .
🔴Pharmacotherapeutics➡️Clinical application of pharmacodynamics and
pharmacokinetics information to cure
🔴Clinical pharmacology➡️Deals with the comparative clinical evaluations of new drug for developing its therapeutic efficacy and safety.
🔴Toxicology➡️Deals with the toxicity and poisonous effects of various
chemicals and also with the symptoms and treatment of poisoning.
🔴Chemotherapy ➡️Deals with the systemic infection or malignancy
with drugs with selective toxicity for infecting organisms.
🔴Pharmacogenetics➡️Deals with the study of inherited (single gene
mediated)differences in the drug metabolism or
drug response in humans.
🔴Pharmacogenomics➡️Deals with the genetic make up (Genome) of
individual to choose drug therapy .
🔴Pharmacoepidemeiology➡️Deals with the study of use and effects of
the drug in large population to establish risk: Benefit ratio of the drug .
🔴Pharmacovigilance➡️Deals with the continuous monitoring for unwanted
effects and other safety related aspects of marketed drugs . Science related to DAUP (Detection, Assessment. Understanding and
Prevention).
هذه التعريفات قالت الدكتورة عليهم✨هدية MCQ✨:
🔴Pharmacokinetics ➡️Deals with ADME process i.e. what the body does to the drug .
🔴Pharmacodynamics➡️Deals with the biological effect of the drug ,its mechanism of action and relation b/w its plasma concentration ,its response and
duration of action i.e. What the drug does to the body .
🔴Pharmacotherapeutics➡️Clinical application of pharmacodynamics and
pharmacokinetics information to cure
🔴Clinical pharmacology➡️Deals with the comparative clinical evaluations of new drug for developing its therapeutic efficacy and safety.
🔴Toxicology➡️Deals with the toxicity and poisonous effects of various
chemicals and also with the symptoms and treatment of poisoning.
🔴Chemotherapy ➡️Deals with the systemic infection or malignancy
with drugs with selective toxicity for infecting organisms.
🔴Pharmacogenetics➡️Deals with the study of inherited (single gene
mediated)differences in the drug metabolism or
drug response in humans.
🔴Pharmacogenomics➡️Deals with the genetic make up (Genome) of
individual to choose drug therapy .
🔴Pharmacoepidemeiology➡️Deals with the study of use and effects of
the drug in large population to establish risk: Benefit ratio of the drug .
🔴Pharmacovigilance➡️Deals with the continuous monitoring for unwanted
effects and other safety related aspects of marketed drugs . Science related to DAUP (Detection, Assessment. Understanding and
Prevention).
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Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Pharma|المحاضرة الخامسة
ـ مـلاحظة الدكتورة:
🔴Half-life (t1/2):
t1/2 = 0.693 x Vd/CL.(McQ)❗❗⬇️
تجيب فيه بطريقة تعطيك أرقام وتعوض ف القانون لحتى اطلع المجهول .
ـ مـلاحظة الدكتورة:
🔴Half-life (t1/2):
t1/2 = 0.693 x Vd/CL.(McQ)❗❗⬇️
تجيب فيه بطريقة تعطيك أرقام وتعوض ف القانون لحتى اطلع المجهول .
❤2
Forwarded from Dania Fathi
Pharma|ملاحظات المحاضرة السادسة
🔴Amphetamine is a CNS stimulant.
Some medical students may take it during exams to increase mental alertness and concentration. Athletes may also use it to stimulate physical activity and improve performance.
However, one of its disadvantages is that it can cause addiction. It is sometimes used in cases of weight loss because it decreases appetite.
It is not a very good drug because it can cause addiction.
🔴Salbutamol is a beta blockers drug. It is used to treat asthma attacks because it causes bronchodilation (relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles).
🔴Amphetamine is a CNS stimulant.
Some medical students may take it during exams to increase mental alertness and concentration. Athletes may also use it to stimulate physical activity and improve performance.
However, one of its disadvantages is that it can cause addiction. It is sometimes used in cases of weight loss because it decreases appetite.
It is not a very good drug because it can cause addiction.
🔴Salbutamol is a beta blockers drug. It is used to treat asthma attacks because it causes bronchodilation (relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles).
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هذه تجميعات بالحل ،مقسمة كُل جزئية أو تشابتر من المنهج بروحه شاملة كُل الدفعات ما عدا54و55 لو بتبثوا بيها⬇️
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#PH241
تجميعات ل الإمتحانات النصفية السابقة من دفعة الخت فت إلى 55⬇️:
تجميعات ل الإمتحانات النصفية السابقة من دفعة الخت فت إلى 55⬇️:
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