Pharma| Diuretics ملاحظات جزئية 💊:


🔴Acetazolamide➡️contraindaction➡️Contraindications:

1. Liver cirrhosis:Because alkalization of the urine decreases the ability to excrete NH4, which leads to the development of hepatic encephalopathy.
2. Acute renal failure: (Because they cause acidosis).
قالت الدكتورة الحاجات يلي زي هكي موضع اسئلة❗❗.



🔴Loop diuretics produce pulmonary vasodilation, which helps relieve pulmonary edema. However, they do not have a significant antihypertensive effect because they donot have direct effect on systemic blood vessels.



🔴Thiazides are the only diuretics that have both a diuretic effect and a vasodilatory effect, and they also have an antihypertensive effect.
❗MCQ❗ قالت الدكتورة جايباته قبل ومش مجاوبينه



قالت الدكتورة حاولوا تقروا الشابتر بطريقة المقارنة 💊✨.

ملاحظات جزئية الDiuretics✅💊.

https://t.me/atebadoctors56/61

تذكير لكافة السيمسترات من السيمستر الأول للخامس
كافة المواد في هاشتاقات تضغط عليها يطلعلك كل مايخص المادة من مصادر وملخصات وأكثر

موفقين دكاترة 🤍

Para| Arthropods🐛:ملاحظات المحاضرة الأولى

🔴Arthropods can act as either mechanical vectors or biological vectors.

⭕Mechanical transmission: The arthropod only carries the pathogen from one host to another without any change in the organism.

⭕Biological transmission: The pathogen undergoes development, maturation, or multiplication inside the arthropod before it is transmitted to another host.

🔴The mosquito transmits malaria by biological transmission because the parasite undergoes development and maturation inside the mosquito.
An example of mechanical transmission is the housefly, which carries pathogens on its legs and mouthparts and transfers them to food without any development of the organism inside the fly.

🔴When the mosquito injects the infective stage of malaria (the sporozoites), it also injects saliva.
Mosquito saliva contains about 100–200 proteins and peptides. These substances have anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and anesthetic effects, which prevent blood clotting and reduce pain, so the person usually does not feel the bite.
Mosquito saliva also stimulates the immune system and can induce both IgE and IgG antibody responses.
🔴Not all people have the same immune response to mosquito saliva
People who are newly exposed to malaria-endemic areas are more susceptible to malaria because they have not developed immunity to mosquito saliva or to the malaria parasite.
In contrast, people who have lived in endemic areas for a long time are repeatedly exposed to mosquito bites and malaria parasites, so they develop partial immunity and become less susceptible to severe infection.

🔴Male mosquitoes do not feed on blood.
🔴Female mosquitoes are blood feeders because they need a blood meal to obtain the proteins and nutrients required for egg development.

🔴Mosquitoes are small insects with a body size ranging from 4–12 mm.
Their body is divided into three main parts:
-Head
-Thorax
-Abdomen.

🔴The most important mosquito genera are:
Anopheles
Aedes
Culex.

🔴Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria.
🔴Culex mosquitoes transmit West Nile fever and some types of encephalitis.
🔴Aedes mosquitoes transmit yellow fever, dengue fever, and Japanese encephalitis.

🔴Mosquito saliva prevents blood coagulation and platelet aggregation.
These effects occur within seconds to minutes after the bite.
The saliva also causes vasodilation, which helps the mosquito to draw blood more easily.

🔴Mosquito saliva contains the infective stage of malaria (sporozoites).amount measured in milliliters.
🔴Eggs of Anopheles mosquitoes are characterized by a boat-like shape with lateral “waves” or floats, which help them stay on the surface of water.
The larval position of Anopheles is parallel to the water surface, unlike other mosquito larvae that usually hang at an angle of about 45°.
This difference is because Anopheles larvae do not have a siphon (breathing tube).
In contrast, other mosquito larvae have a siphon, which they use for respiration (breathing), so they attach to the water surface at an angle.


🔴🪰 House fly:
Musca domestica is the common house fly.
It is a non-biting fly, meaning it does not bite or pierce the skin.
It feeds on garbage, decaying organic matter, and exposed food.
It transmits diseases in a mechanical way (mechanical transmission), by carrying pathogens on its body and transferring them to food.
Diseases it may transmit:
Bacteria causing diarrhea and food poisoning
Eggs of some parasites


🔴🪰 Biting fly:
Stomoxys calcitrans (Stable fly)
It is a biting fly, meaning it feeds on blood.
Its bite is painful.
Unlike the house fly, it actively pierces the skin to suck blood.
🔹 Medical importance:
It may transmit some protozoal infections and blood-related pathogens in certain cases.

🔴Bed bugs prefer warm environments. They can easily spread during travel. For example, if someone stays in a hotel, bed bugs may get into their luggage. Then they can be transported back to their home country or another destination through the suitcase.

Bed bugs are well adapted to travel because they can survive for long periods without feeding, which makes them easy to carry unnoticed from place to place.

🔴Fungal infections in the hair follicle can occur in people who have mental health problems or who are unable to take care of themselves properly. This is often seen in patients with conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, where poor personal hygiene may contribute to the development of the infection.

🔴Dementia is a general term for a group of symptoms that affect memory, thinking, and the ability to perform daily activities. In advanced stages, a person may become like a baby in terms of dependence, and may not be able to communicate basic needs such as hunger, thirst, or the need to use the bathroom.
Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most common causes of dementia. In Alzheimer’s, the patient usually has progressive memory loss and confusion, but in the earlier stages they may still be able to recognize their needs and express them, although they tend to forget recent events and important information.

Anatomy|neuro المحاضرة الأولى




❗❗🫣MCQ:

🔴All of the following in inter peduncular Fossa exept anterior Perfronted substance and Trochlear nerve
4.





🔴In the Medulla Oblongata:
The Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) emerges from the sulcus between the Pyramid and the Olive.
The Glossopharyngeal (IX), Vagus (X), and Accessory (XI) nerves emerge from the sulcus between the Olive and the Cerebellar Peduncle.

التعريفات هذه تجي ف الMCQ:

قناة زميلتنا ✨ولاء ✨ يلي ح تشرح فيها مادة الباثولوجي بطريقة بسيطة ومرتبة، وتساعدكم ع الفهم والمراجعة📚.



رابط القناة⬇️:
https://t.me/WALAAPATHO56
.

Anatomy|ملاحظات المحاضرة الثانية منneurosnatomy☠️🧠:

🔴all of the following in Circle of Willis except middle cerebral.❗MCQ❗.

🔴The arachnoid mater and pia mater do not cover the dorsal root ganglion. In contrast, the dura mater covers the dorsal root ganglion.❗MCQ❗.

سلايدات عملي الباثو بدون بيانات ⤴️

Pharma|hypertenstion💊:


🔴Beta-2 blockers may cause bronchoconstriction due to blockage of β2 receptors in the bronchi, but they are associated with vasoconstriction.

🔴If beta-blockers are used for a long time and then suddenly replaced with another antihypertensive drug, withdrawal symptoms may occur, such as hypertension and even heart attack. This happens because the number and sensitivity of β-receptors increase during long-term beta-blocker therapy.

🔴Alpha- and beta-blockers are used to treat hypertensive emergencies and hypertension caused by pheochromocytoma.❗MCQ❗.

🔴Minoxidil is no longer commonly used as an antihypertensive drug.
Instead, topical minoxidil is mainly used to treat baldness because it stimulates hair growth and cause hirsutism as a side effect.

ملاحظات شيت الhyper tenstion✅.

Para|Molecular Techniques🧬🐛:


🔴In malaria research, the mosquito is sometimes lysed to extract its DNA.
In some studies, researchers focus specifically on the sporozoites inside the mosquito. In this case, they isolate the salivary glands because the sporozoites are located there. The mosquito is cut into two parts, and the head with the mouthparts is separated from the body. Depending on the aim of the study, researchers may keep one part and discard the other.
For example:
If the study targets the salivary glands or sporozoites, the head and thoracic region are used.
If the study focuses on the mosquito gut, the mouthparts are discarded and the body part is kept to obtain the required DNA sample.


🔴For example, a trematode may have a specific gene that is expressed only at a certain time, and researchers may want to study this gene. In this case, DNA analysis alone may not be useful. Instead, RNA analysis is more important because gene expression is not constant.
Some genes may be upregulated, while others may be downregulated. In some cases, a particular gene is expressed only during infection. Therefore, studying RNA helps researchers understand when and how the gene is actively expressed.


🔴The polymerase enzyme is the only enzyme that can work at high temperatures.


🔴Whole genome means the complete set of genes or the entire genetic material of an organism.