ملاحظات دكتورات الكلية لجزئية النصفي✅:

ملاحظات الcell injury كلهم بصيغة pdf⬇️:

ملاحظات محاضرة المراجعة اليوم لجزئية الCell injurey⬇️:

Patho| "Cell injury" ملاحظات محاضرة المراجعة


🔴All Of the following is example of physiological adaptation except....
Any example of pathological➡️طريقة السؤال في ال✨MCQ✨.

🔴apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) is an ATP-dependent process,whereas necrosis is not.

🔴 Apoptosis not show inflamatory reaction.❗McQ❗.

🔴In coagulative necrosis, the architectureof the cells is preserved, but the cellular details such as the mitochondria and lysosomes are lost, dead, and fragmented.

🔴In liquefactive necrosis, the architecture is lost.

🔴case:A female patient was involved in an accident and developed trauma to the breast. The breast showed basophilic calcification, and after the trauma, a hard, palpable mass was formed. It was diagnosed as fat necrosis.


🔴Note➡️Calcium appears basophilic (blue) under the microscope.
-الدكتورة قالت ف الNecrosis مرات تجيب كيس زي هكي اقروه بالطريقة هذه (قالت ميعنيش أن بتجي ف النصفي لكن خلوها ف بالكم )❗❗.

🔴all of the following example of physiological Apoptosis except..any thing pathological❗McQ❗..⬅️ طريقة السؤال في الإمتحان


🔴The extrinsic pathway of Apoptosis➡️caspase 8. ❗important❗..

🔴amyloidosis show extracullular accumulation not intracellular. ❗Mcq❗.

🔴amyloidosis resistance degredation.


🔴Amyloid➡️diameter of 7-10 nm with electron microscopy.❗important❗.

🔴ATTR transthyretin (un-mutated form)➡️senile cardiac amyloidosis.❗MCQ❗.


🔴mutant amyloid transthyretin (ATTR)➡️Familial Amyloid Polyneuropathies.

🔴Calcitonin is found in medullary thyroid carcinoma.

🔴Localized amyloidosis➡️AL not AA ❗MCQ❗.

Familial Mediterranean Fever➡️Autosomal recessive disease not dominant.❗MCQ❗.

🔴Amyloidosis in patients on hemodialysis in the carpal ligament of the wrist cause median nerve compression (carpal tunnel syndrom➡️Anesthesia). ❗MCQ❗.

🔴Congo red stain (most commonly used stain):❗McQ❗

_Ordinary light ➡️pink or red color.
_Polarizing light➡️ apple green birefringence

ملاحظات محاضرة المراجعة في الinflamation⬇️:

Patho|"inflamation"محاضرة المراجعة

🔴Hydrostatic pressure is mainly controlled by the heart. If heart failure occurs, hydrostatic pressure increases, leading to the formation of edema.
On the other hand, oncotic (osmotic) pressure is mainly maintained by plasma proteins, especially albumin. These proteins are synthesized in the liver and regulated by the kidneys. If there is a disease affecting the liver or kidneys, protein levels decrease, which reduces oncotic pressure and leads to edema.

These mechanisms are common causes of transudate, and they can also be associated with malnutrition, which further decreases protein levels and contributes to edema formation.


🔴Phagocytosis in leukocytes is not exclusively oxygen-dependent, because killing can occur through both oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent mechanisms.❗MCq❗.


🔴Acute inflammation stimulates innate immunity.


🔴Inflammation occurs in vascularized tissue.❗important❗.


🔴The anti-inflammatory cytokines are TGF-β and IL-10.❗MCQ❗.


🔴TGF-β play important role in regulation of inflamation.❗MCQ❗.

🔴Fever➡️IL-1,IL6.

🔴pain➡️Kinin/Bradykinin.

🔴Proteolytic enzymes of neutrophils They are responsible for pus formation.

🔴Suppurative inflammation can be either localized or diffuse depending on the type of bacteria.❗MCQ❗.

🔴When macrophages fuse together or when their proliferation does not stop, they form➡️Giant cells

-One important type is Langhans giant cells, which are typically found in tuberculosis (TB) granulomas.

In granulomatous diseases such as sarcoidosis, we may also find characteristic inclusions inside giant cells called➡️1_Asteroid bodies 2_Schaumann bodies
referred to as inclusion bodies within giant cells in sarcoidosis.

تجميعة ل الrecessive والdominant،مهمات الدكتورة تركز عليهم⬇️🧬:

🔴Hemochromatosis➡️primary Hereditary➡️autosomal recessive.

🔴Familial Amyloid Polyneuropathies ➡️autosomal dominant.

🔴Familial Mediterranean Fever➡️Autosomal recessive disease.

🔴بما أن الشيت الأول عليه سؤال واحد،هذا الجدول يعتبر أهم حاجة ،ف التجميعات الاسئلة ع الشيت الأول شبه منه ،والدكتورة ف المحاضرة قالت عليه مهم ف قالت تجيب الTerm وتطلب الmeaningاو تجيب الmeaning وتطلب الterm:

الاسئلة المتكررة في التجميعات تلقوهم ف الpdf هذا ⚡⬇️:

هذا السؤال يتكرر،وكرراته هلبا الدكتورة فى محاضرة المراجعة ،وجي السيم لفات ل55⤴️:

الخطوات قالت الدكتورة أول محاضرة احفظوهم بالترتيب،لان مرات ف mcq تغير الترتيب:

اللهم في هذا اليوم، نسألك أن تفتح علينا فتوح العارفين، وتوفقنا توفيق الصالحين. اللهم لا سهل إلا ما جعلته سهلاً، وأنت تجعل الحزن إذا شئت سهلاً.
اللهم ذكّرنا ما نسينا، وعلّمنا ما جهلنا، وثبّت قلوبنا عند الإجابة. يا رب لا تضيع لنا تعباً،يا ربّ، استودعناك ما قرأنا وما حفظنا وما فهمنا، فردّه إلينا عند حاجتنا إليه. اللهم ارزقنا سرعة الفهم، وصفاء الذهن، وقوة التركيز. بالتوفيق ف اخر امتحان نصفي دكاترة.

Final Season Notes 📚:

Para| nematode المحاضرة الأولى



🔴Cestoda (tapeworms) the best example is Hydatid cyst.


🔴Trematode(flukes) ➡️leaf like🍀➡️example➡️ Schistosoma (Bilharzia).


🔴Lymphatic group➡️Brugia malayi+Wuchereria bancrofti .



🔴Onchocerca volvulus causes river blindness, whereas Loa loa migrates across the eye without causing permanent blindness.



🔴Dracunculus medinensis➡️مش مهمة هلبا قال الدكتور سؤال واحد اعليها

🔴Intestinal Nematodes:

✨Small Intestine:Ascaris lumbricoides+-.....Hookworms
*Ancylostoma duodenale (found in the duodenum, but may also be present in the jejunum).

*Necator americanus.

✨Large Intestine:
*Very common, less catastrophic, and cause less damage➡️Enterobius vermicularis.

*Trichuris trichiura (TT).

🔴Strongyloides stercoralis is found in the small intestine and It is an opportunistic parasite, especially in immunocompromised patients and those who have undergone organ transplantation. and It can cause malabsorption, leading to fat in the stool (steatorrhea) and fatty diarrhea.


🔴Nematodes → male + female➡️have separate sexes.
🔴Cestodes → hermaphrodite➡️each worm contains both male and female reproductive organs in the same body.
🔴Schistosoma → male + female (exception).❗McQ❗.
🔴Schistosoma (a trematode, not a cestode) has separate male and female worms.


🔴In nematodes:
If the tail is straight, it indicates➡️ a female.

If the tail is curved (kinked), it indicates➡️ a male.

The female is usually longer than the male.

🔴Small Intestine: Ascaris lumbricoides➡️It lives mainly in the small intestine (most commonly found there)،However, it can migrate to other organs such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and even the large intestine،It is considered a giant worm (one of the largest intestinal nematodes.

🔴Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworms found in the small intestine.

They produce eggs that are passed in the stool.
🔴Most intestinal nematodes are oviparous (they lay eggs) except❗(mcq)❗➡️
Strongyloides stercoralis is ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs hatch inside the female, and larvae (not eggs) are passed in the stool.
🔴Viviparous = Live-bearing.

🔴All tissue nematodes are viviparous, meaning they do not produce eggs. Instead, they release larvae .

❗So if you get a multiple-choice question mentioning an “egg of Loa loa,” it is incorrect.
🔴Nematodes modes of Infection➡️Ingestion of eggs(frco oral)➡️Ascaris, Enterobius, Trichuris.

🔴Strongyloides➡️modes of Infection➡️Penetration of skin not feco oral ❗mcq❗تعبر exceptionف الintestine.

🔴Necator modes of Infection is not feco oral.❗mcq❗.

Hookworms Penetration of skin and not reach the large intestine in cecum _colon becasce reach small intestine❗mcq❗.

🔴Intestinal nematodes in general, such as Ascaris lumbricoides, do not require an intermediate host. Transmission can occur directly via ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated food, water, or soil. Even if intermediate hosts like flies are involved in mechanical transfer, they are not essential for the life cycle, so transmission can still occur without them.
In contrast, diseases like malaria and leishmaniasis strictly require an intermediate host (vector) for transmission—such as mosquitoes for malaria and sandflies for leishmaniasis.
Malaria is primarily transmitted through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito, which is the biological intermediate host (vector),However, malaria can also be transmitted without the mosquito in some special situations, such as:
Blood transfusion from an infected person+Transplacental transmission from mother to fetus (congenital malaria).


🔴Integumentary System=skin

🔴Loa loa is found in the skin and conjunctiva،We can say it is located in the integumentary system.❗mcq❗..


🔴Host man=male+female not just male


🔴Eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides➡️microscope not macroscope.

🔴unfertilized eggs➡️not infection stage


🔴Fertilized eggs released from Ascaris lumbricoides are not the infective stage because they require at least 2 weeks to become embryonated eggs.

🔴infection stage➡️fertalized(not infertlized) embryonated eggs.❗mcq❗.

🔴Unfertilized eggs have a thinner membrane, whereas fertilized eggs have a thicker membrane.


🔴The fertilized eggs may lose the thick mamillated albuminous coat. These types of eggs are called decorticated eggs. In this case, they may resemble unfertilized eggs and have no importance.


🔴Ascaris lumbricoides➡️Worms that are transmitted through soil are called geohelminths.


🔴Enterobius vermicularis➡️It is a parasite commonly seen in children (especially in kindergarten/preschool settings)،It is not a geohelminth،The eggs that are released are already embryonated (infective) immediately.


🔴 embryonated eggs are sensitive to environmental conditions،If they are exposed to direct sunlight, heat, and dryness.


🔴The first-stage larva (L1) develops first inside the egg, then it molts to become L2, which is the infective stage.


🔴The infective stage is the embryonated egg containing the second-stage larva (L2).❗McQ❗.


🔴The largest intestinal nematode that infects humans is Ascaris lumbricoides.


🔴The small egg of Ascaris lumbricoides will not suddenly develop into an adult worm.
It must first undergo development in the environment, become an embryonated egg, and then infect a host before it can mature into an adult.


🔴Allergic pneumonitis is a transition from the second stage to the third stage of infection, and it is the same as Loeffler’s syndrome.


🔴The symptoms of allergic pneumonitis include cough, fever, dyspnea, bronchospasm, wheezing, and asthma-like symptoms،The condition in the lungs is temporary, not permanent.


🔴The symptoms of Ascaris lumbricoides (L4 stage in the small intestine) range from asymptomatic cases to severe complications. Some patients may show no symptoms, while others develop abdominal pain, bloating, constipation or diarrhea, malabsorption, iron and zinc deficiency, failure to thrive, growth retardation (stunted growth), and general weakness. In more severe cases, it may lead to surgical emergencies such as intestinal obstruction with severe vomiting and acute abdominal pain. Other manifestations include asthma-like symptoms, allergic reactions, white skin depigmentation (white patches of skin), and teeth grinding (bruxism). If the worms migrate to other organs, they may cause cholecystitis, jaundice, pancreatitis, or appendicitis when they reach the appendix of the cecum.
🔴Diagnosis of Ascaris lumbricoides:
Diagnosis is made by examining three stool samples collected on different days, because egg shedding is intermittent. Stool samples should be examined as soon as possible; at room temperature they should ideally be processed within less than one hour, and they can be preserved in a refrigerator for up to one day.
In stool examination, we may find:
*Unembryonated fertilized eggs
*Unfertilized eggs
*Decorticated eggs
All of these are considered diagnostic forms,However, Fertlized embryonated eggs are not found in stool because they develop in the soil after being passed in feces. The embryonated egg is the infective stage, and it is found in the environment, not in stool.
🔴Treatment of Ascaris lumbricoides➡️The treatment is metronidazole,The alternative drug is albendazole.


🔴Enterobius vermicularis➡️It is characterized by perianal itching (pruritus ani),
The infection causes the child to start scratching the perianal region, including the buttocks (gluteal area) due to irritation and egg-laying around the anus.
This intense itching is a key clinical feature of Enterobius vermicularis infection.


🔴The female Enterobius vermicularis migrates at night to the perianal region and lays eggs around the anus, then returns to the intestine،This is why itching (pruritus ani) becomes worse at night.
The infective stage is the embryonated egg.
The diagnostic stages are the eggs and sometimes the adult worm.
Eggs are seen under the microscope, while the adult worm can be seen with the naked eye, as it is about 0.5 cm or one cm in length.(White or creamy threads).

🔴Stool analysis for Enterobius (Enterobius vermicularis)
Stool examination is the second choice for diagnosis, not the first choice. This is because the female worm lays eggs around the perianal region, so the eggs are not consistently found in the stool. Therefore, finding eggs in stool is possible but not reliable or guaranteed.
The first choice for diagnosis is the perianal swab (Scotch tape test) with out stain،which collects eggs deposited around the anus, especially in the early morning before washing or defecation.

🔴Trichuris trichiura is found in the large intestine and is the only parasite that can cause rectal prolapse.
🔴Ancylostoma duodenale is common in Libya. It causes iron deficiency anemia by feeding on blood from the duodenum and jejunum, and sometimes the ileum. The parasite mainly resides in the small intestine.
🔴Ancylostoma duodenale is transmitted through bare feet (walking barefoot on contaminated soil).

Para| nematodeالمحاضرة الثانية




🔴Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm or threadworm) is also called oxyuriasis or seat worm.
🔴lower ileum=cecum.
🔴Enterobius vermicularis can cause urinary tract irritation in girls because it may migrate to or deposit eggs near the urethral orifice.
Enterobius vermicularis➡️autoinfection.
🔴Enterobius vermicularis can be transmitted by inhalation; the eggs may be inhaled and then swallowed, leading to infection.
🔴The Scotch tape test is the first-choice method for diagnosing Enterobius vermicularis infection. Stool examination is the second choice, as eggs are not always present in stool samples.
🔴the treatment of Enterobius vermicularis, a second dose of medication should be given after two weeks. The first dose kills the adult worms, while the eggs may survive. After two weeks, the eggs will have developed into adults, and the second dose helps eliminate them.
🔴The main route of infection of Ancylostoma duodenale is skin penetration by larvae in contaminated soil(penetration by filariform (L3) larvae not egg)..
Except ❗❗(Mcq)❗❗in some cases—especially in children who play in soil and then eat contaminated vegetables or food—the larvae can be ingested. After ingestion, the larvae may penetrate through the oral cavity or buccal mucosa, enter the bloodstream, migrate to the lungs, and are then swallowed back into the small intestine, where they mature.

This means infection can occur oral cavity/buccal penetration, but it is not primarily a fecal-oral transmission.➡️قال الدكتور rare لكن تحدث +❗MCQ❗❗.

🔴Ancylostoma duodenale:
In chronic infections with a heavy worm load, patients develop iron deficiency anemia, specifically microcytic anemia, due to continuous blood loss.

🔴In the treatment of Ancylostoma duodenale infection, albendazole should be given along with iron supplements to treat iron deficiency anemia.

🔴Strongyloides stercoralis
In immunocompetent individuals, infection is often asymptomatic. However, in immunosuppressed patients, the parasite can become reactivated and disseminated, leading to severe and potentially fatal disease.
In organ transplantation, if a person donates an organ (e.g., kidney), the presence of Strongyloides stercoralis may cause transplant failure. In some cases, rejection is not due to tissue mismatch but due to undetected infection and larval autoinfection/activation (hyperinfection syndrome).
This is especially important because transplant recipients are given long-term immunosuppressive therapy, which can activate latent infection and lead to severe complications. The same risk applies to other organs such as the heart, liver, and lungs.
Therefore, screening for Strongyloides stercoralis infection must be performed before organ transplantation to prevent complications and ensure transplant success.


🔴Strongyloides stercoralis
In immunocompromised individuals—such as patients with HIV, malnutrition, or those receiving chemotherapy—infection with Strongyloides stercoralis can be severe and harmful due to weakened immunity.
The parasite lives in the small intestine and may cause fatty diarrhea (steatorrhea).

🔴Strongyloides stercoralis
It is one of the most important parasites transmitted through skin penetration, although other routes may occur. It is ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs hatch inside the female.
Therefore, eggs are not found in the stool. Instead, diagnosis is made by detecting larvae, especially the rhabditiform larvae, in stool samples.

🔴Strongyloides stercoralis
Strongyloides stercoralis has a complex life cycle with multiple pathways (often described as four types of life cycles), but its main goal is to reach the small intestine.
The infective stage is the filariform larva (L3). It penetrates the skin, enters the bloodstream, migrates to the lungs, ascends the respiratory tract, and is then swallowed to reach the small intestine.