Doctor s’ Notes
Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة التالثة 🔴in hyperplasia, the cells are normal in structure and appearance, but their number increases. In contrast, in cancer, the cells are abnormal and uncontrolled. This is the main difference between hyperplasia and cancer. 🔴Before…
ملاحظة :الدكتورة ردت ع إستفسار كيف نمط الاسئلة في الإمتحان؟ قالت نمط الاسئلة بيكون MCQ واعطت مثال مثلاً تجيب أسباب الhyperatrophy الphysiological وتحط except ف بتختار الpathological وهكذا نمط باقي الاسئلة..
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Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة الرابعة
🔴Cardiac muscle cannot tolerate hypoxia for long; it can only survive for a few minutes it is called minut mainuscsle → muscle survives only minutes / a few minutes.
🔴Free radicals (ROS) are opposed by protective enzymes and antioxidants.
🔴Infarction is ischemia associated with necrosis.
🔴Proteins are important for the cell in the cytoskeleton and structure.
🔴Damage to DNA and proteins, if there is no DNA repair system, can lead to malignancy.
🔴hallmark of irreversible cell damage is Membrane damage.(Important)
🔴Hallmark of reversible cell damage is cellular swelling. (Important)
🔴Reactive Oxygen Species:-
-Suprroxide
-Hydrogen peroxide
-Hydroxyl radical
🔴protective mechanism (McQ):
_Glutathione peroxidases.
_catalase.
_Super oxide dismutase(Sod).
🔴Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is considered carcinogenic.
🔴Fatty change is divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver occurs in conditions such as obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.
🔴Fatty liver is when the liver cells start to develop vacuoles filled with fat.
🔴Fatty liver has a smooth surface, rounded borders,
and a yellow color,On palpation, its consistency feels greasy.
🔴Cardiac muscle cannot tolerate hypoxia for long; it can only survive for a few minutes it is called minut mainuscsle → muscle survives only minutes / a few minutes.
🔴Free radicals (ROS) are opposed by protective enzymes and antioxidants.
🔴Infarction is ischemia associated with necrosis.
🔴Proteins are important for the cell in the cytoskeleton and structure.
🔴Damage to DNA and proteins, if there is no DNA repair system, can lead to malignancy.
🔴hallmark of irreversible cell damage is Membrane damage.(Important)
🔴Hallmark of reversible cell damage is cellular swelling. (Important)
🔴Reactive Oxygen Species:-
-Suprroxide
-Hydrogen peroxide
-Hydroxyl radical
🔴protective mechanism (McQ):
_Glutathione peroxidases.
_catalase.
_Super oxide dismutase(Sod).
🔴Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is considered carcinogenic.
🔴Fatty change is divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver occurs in conditions such as obesity, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome.
🔴Fatty liver is when the liver cells start to develop vacuoles filled with fat.
🔴Fatty liver has a smooth surface, rounded borders,
and a yellow color,On palpation, its consistency feels greasy.
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Patho|المحاضرة الخامسة
ملاحظات المحاضرة :
🔴Necrosis is a passive process that usually affects a large group of cells. The cell membrane ruptures, which leads to the release of cellular contents and causes inflammation. (McQ)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis is an active process that affects a small group of cells. The cell membrane remains intact and does not rupture, so inflammation does not occur.(McQ).❗❗.
🔴Heterolysis occurs due to enzymes released from nearby inflammatory cells.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis Characteristic of infarcts (sudden ischemia) in
all-solid organs (heart, kidney…) except brain .(MCQ)❗❗.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis The protein denaturation process, is more
prominent than enzymatic break down (autolysis) but in Liquefactive necrosis Enzymatic breakdown (cell lysis) being predominant over protein denaturation.(McQ)❗❗.
🔴Kidney infarction – Coagulative necrosis
The infarcted area in the kidney is usually pyramidal in shape. The peripheral (base) is directed toward the renal capsule, while the apex points toward the hilum, where the renal artery and vein enter the kidney.
The infarcted area appears wedge-shaped (pyramidal), like a triangle.
Characteristics:
The color is pale yellowish-white because the cells are dead.
The surrounding zone appears red due to inflammation and congestion.
On palpation, it has a firm consistency.
If the infarction is recent, it is usually without swelling.
If the infarction is old, it becomes more firm due to fibrosis.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis:
In gross appearance, it forms a cavity (empty space) filled with liquid material.
In the brain, it may appear as a cystic mass due to the action of lysosomal enzymes that digest the dead tissue.
On palpation, the tissue has a soft consistency.
The surrounding zone appears red because of hyperemia and inflammation.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis seen in Pyogenic Abscess(bacteria or fungi onfection).
🔴Caseous necrosis is seen most often in tuberculosis and is considered a chronic specific type of necrosis.
🔴Tuberculosis in the lung:
It can be seen without a microscope (grossly).
It appears as a cheese-like material, which is characteristic of caseous necrosis.
🔴Fat Necrosis:
Enzymatic fat necrosis occurs due to the escape of pancreatic enzymes (lipase). These enzymes digest the pancreas itself and also digest the surrounding peritoneal fat cells, which occurs in acute pancreatitis. This condition may occur due to alcoholism.
🔴Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in malignant hypertension, especially in the renal arterioles.
ملاحظات المحاضرة :
🔴Necrosis is a passive process that usually affects a large group of cells. The cell membrane ruptures, which leads to the release of cellular contents and causes inflammation. (McQ)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis is an active process that affects a small group of cells. The cell membrane remains intact and does not rupture, so inflammation does not occur.(McQ).❗❗.
🔴Heterolysis occurs due to enzymes released from nearby inflammatory cells.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis Characteristic of infarcts (sudden ischemia) in
all-solid organs (heart, kidney…) except brain .(MCQ)❗❗.
🔴Coagulative Necrosis The protein denaturation process, is more
prominent than enzymatic break down (autolysis) but in Liquefactive necrosis Enzymatic breakdown (cell lysis) being predominant over protein denaturation.(McQ)❗❗.
🔴Kidney infarction – Coagulative necrosis
The infarcted area in the kidney is usually pyramidal in shape. The peripheral (base) is directed toward the renal capsule, while the apex points toward the hilum, where the renal artery and vein enter the kidney.
The infarcted area appears wedge-shaped (pyramidal), like a triangle.
Characteristics:
The color is pale yellowish-white because the cells are dead.
The surrounding zone appears red due to inflammation and congestion.
On palpation, it has a firm consistency.
If the infarction is recent, it is usually without swelling.
If the infarction is old, it becomes more firm due to fibrosis.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis:
In gross appearance, it forms a cavity (empty space) filled with liquid material.
In the brain, it may appear as a cystic mass due to the action of lysosomal enzymes that digest the dead tissue.
On palpation, the tissue has a soft consistency.
The surrounding zone appears red because of hyperemia and inflammation.
🔴Liquefactive necrosis seen in Pyogenic Abscess(bacteria or fungi onfection).
🔴Caseous necrosis is seen most often in tuberculosis and is considered a chronic specific type of necrosis.
🔴Tuberculosis in the lung:
It can be seen without a microscope (grossly).
It appears as a cheese-like material, which is characteristic of caseous necrosis.
🔴Fat Necrosis:
Enzymatic fat necrosis occurs due to the escape of pancreatic enzymes (lipase). These enzymes digest the pancreas itself and also digest the surrounding peritoneal fat cells, which occurs in acute pancreatitis. This condition may occur due to alcoholism.
🔴Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in malignant hypertension, especially in the renal arterioles.
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Patho|ملاحظات المحاضرة السادسة
🔴Apoptosis It is either physiologic or pathologic but necrosis is pathological process only (never physiological).(Mcq)❗❗
🔴Caspases (especially caspase-8) is called procaspases.
🔴The intrinsic pathway
The intrinsic pathway is initiated by internal cellular signals, such as DNA damage, viral infection, oxidative stress, or absence of growth factors (GF). These signals lead to inactivation and loss of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL(x_large).
The Bcl-2 family proteins include both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins. They work together to maintain a balance in the regulation of apoptosi.
🔴The central role that completes the process of apoptosis is played by cytochrome .(Mcq)❗❗.
🔴Apoptosis It is either physiologic or pathologic but necrosis is pathological process only (never physiological).(Mcq)❗❗
🔴Caspases (especially caspase-8) is called procaspases.
🔴The intrinsic pathway
The intrinsic pathway is initiated by internal cellular signals, such as DNA damage, viral infection, oxidative stress, or absence of growth factors (GF). These signals lead to inactivation and loss of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL(x_large).
The Bcl-2 family proteins include both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins. They work together to maintain a balance in the regulation of apoptosi.
🔴The central role that completes the process of apoptosis is played by cytochrome .(Mcq)❗❗.
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