Q1
Assertion (A): Solubility of AgCl decreases on addition of NaCl.
Reason (R): Addition of NaCl increases concentration of Cl⁻ ions.


Q2
Assertion (A): Larger the value of Ksp, higher is the solubility of a salt.
Reason (R): Ksp is directly proportional to solubility for all salts


Q3
Assertion (A): Precipitation occurs when ionic product exceeds Ksp.
Reason (R): Solution becomes supersaturated under this condition.


Q4
Assertion (A): Solubility of BaSO₄ increases in presence of dilute HCl.
Reason (R): H⁺ ions react with SO₄²⁻ ions to form HSO₄⁻.


Q5
Assertion (A): Two salts having same Ksp may have different solubilities.
Reason (R): Solubility depends on number of ions produced on dissociation

.

1️⃣ #WEAKELECTROLYTES
✔️ Weak acids & weak bases ionise partially in aqueous solution
✔️ Establish equilibrium between ionised & unionised form
📌 Examples:
✔️ Weak acid → CH₃COOH
✔️ Weak base → NH₄OH


2️⃣ #IONISATIONOFWEAKACID
✔️ Partial dissociation in water
📌 General reaction:
HA + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + A⁻
📌 Example:
CH₃COOH + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + CH₃COO⁻


3️⃣ #ACIDDISSOCIATIONCONSTANT (Ka)
✔️ Measure of strength of weak acid
✔️ Higher Ka → stronger acid
📌 Expression:
Ka = [H⁺][A⁻] / [HA]
✔️ Unit: mol L⁻¹


4️⃣ #DEGREEOFIONISATION (α)
✔️ Fraction of total molecules ionised
📌 Formula:
α = Number of molecules ionised / Total molecules
✔️ For weak acids → α ≪ 1


5️⃣ #RELATIONBETWEENKaANDα (NEET FAV )
For weak acid of concentration C:
📌 Formula:
Ka = Cα²
📌 Therefore:
α = √(Ka / C)
✔️ Ionisation increases on dilution


6️⃣ #pKaCONCEPT
✔️ pKa = –log Ka
✔️ Lower pKa → stronger acid
📌 Relation:
Strong acid → small pKa
Weak acid → large pKa


7️⃣ #pHOFWEAKACID
For weak acid of concentration C:
📌 Formula:
[H⁺] = √(Ka × C)
📌 pH formula:
pH = ½ ( pKa – log C )
✔️ Very important for numericals


8️⃣ #IONISATIONOFWEAKBASE
✔️ Partial dissociation in water
📌 General reaction:
BOH ⇌ B⁺ + OH⁻
📌 Example:
NH₄OH ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻


9️⃣ #BASEDISSOCIATIONCONSTANT (Kb)
✔️ Measure of strength of weak base
✔️ Higher Kb → stronger base
📌 Expression:
Kb = [B⁺][OH⁻] / [BOH]


🔟 #RELATIONBETWEENKbANDα
For weak base of concentration C:
📌 Formula:
Kb = Cα²
📌 Therefore:
α = √(Kb / C)


1️⃣1️⃣ #pKbCONCEPT
✔️ pKb = –log Kb
✔️ Lower pKb → stronger base


1️⃣2️⃣ #pHOFWEAKBASE
For weak base of concentration C:
📌 [OH⁻] = √(Kb × C)
📌 pOH formula:
pOH = ½ ( pKb – log C )
📌 pH = 14 – pOH


1️⃣3️⃣ #DILUTIONEFFECT (VERY IMP 🔥)
✔️ On dilution → degree of ionisation increases
✔️ But total ions per unit volume decrease
📌 Ostwald’s dilution law applies


1️⃣4️⃣ #COMMONIONEFFECT
✔️ Ionisation of weak electrolyte decreases
✔️ Presence of common ion shifts equilibrium backward
📌 Example:
CH₃COOH + CH₃COONa → ionisation decreases


1️⃣5️⃣ #WEAKACIDVSWEAKBASE
✔️ Weak acid → H⁺ producing
✔️ Weak base → OH⁻ producing
✔️ Both show partial ionisation


1️⃣6️⃣ #NEET⚠️KEYPOINTS
✔️ Ka & Kb are temperature dependent
✔️ α increases with dilution
✔️ pH of weak acid > strong acid (same concentration)
✔️ pH of weak base < strong base (same concentration)


1️⃣7️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Weak electrolytes ionise partially
✔️ Ka = Cα²
✔️ [H⁺] = √(Ka × C)
✔️ pH weak acid = ½ (pKa – log C)
✔️ Dilution increases ionisation

1️⃣ #REDOXREACTION
✔️ Redox reaction = reaction involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction
✔️ Oxidation → loss of electrons
✔️ Reduction → gain of electrons
📌 Example:
Zn + Cu²⁺ → Zn²⁺ + Cu
✔️ Zn → Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻ (Oxidation)
✔️ Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu (Reduction)


2️⃣ #OXIDATIONNUMBERCONCEPT
✔️ Oxidation number (ON) = hypothetical charge if all bonds ionic
✔️ Increase in ON → oxidation
✔️ Decrease in ON → reduction
📌 Rules:
✔️ Element in free state → ON = 0
✔️ Monatomic ion → ON = charge
✔️ Oxygen → usually –2
✔️ Hydrogen → usually +1
✔️ Sum of ONs in molecule → 0
✔️ Sum of ONs in polyatomic ion → ion charge


3️⃣ #TYPESOFREDOXREACTIONS
✔️ Combination reaction → A + B → AB
✔️ Decomposition → AB → A + B
✔️ Displacement → A + BC → AC + B
✔️ Disproportionation → X → Xⁿ⁺ + Xᵐ⁻
📌 Example:
2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂
✔️ O in H₂O₂: –1 → 0 & –2 (disproportionation)


4️⃣ #OXIDISINGAGENT
✔️ Substance that accepts electrons
✔️ Causes oxidation of other species
📌 Example:
✔️ Cu²⁺ in Zn + Cu²⁺ → Cu²⁺ is oxidising agent


5️⃣ #REDUCINGAGENT
✔️ Substance that donates electrons
✔️ Causes reduction of other species
📌 Example:
✔️ Zn in Zn + Cu²⁺ → Zn is reducing agent


6️⃣ #ELECTRONBALANCEMETHOD (NEET FAV )
✔️ Step 1 → Write oxidation & reduction half-reactions
✔️ Step 2 → Balance atoms other than O & H
✔️ Step 3 → Balance O by H₂O
✔️ Step 4 → Balance H by H⁺ (acidic) or OH⁻ (basic)
✔️ Step 5 → Balance electrons
✔️ Step 6 → Combine half-reactions


7️⃣ #IONICEQUATIONEXAMPLE
✔️ Fe²⁺ + Cr₂O₇²⁻ → Fe³⁺ + Cr³⁺ (acidic medium)
📌 Half-reactions:
Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺ + e⁻
Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 14H⁺ + 6e⁻ → 2Cr³⁺ + 7H₂O
📌 Multiply Fe reaction by 6 → 6Fe²⁺ → 6Fe³⁺ + 6e⁻
📌 Combine → 6Fe²⁺ + Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 14H⁺ → 6Fe³⁺ + 2Cr³⁺ + 7H₂O


8️⃣ #DISPROPORTIONATIONREACTIONS
✔️ Same element undergoes oxidation & reduction simultaneously
📌 Example:
3Cl₂ + 6OH⁻ → 5Cl⁻ + ClO₃⁻ + 3H₂O
✔️ Cl → –1 & +5


9️⃣ #NEET⚠️KEYPOINTS
✔️ Redox can occur in acidic or basic medium
✔️ Use oxidation number method for quick identification
✔️ Disproportionation = special redox with same element
✔️ Oxidising & reducing agents always appear on opposite sides


1️⃣0️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Redox = Oxidation + Reduction
✔️ Oxidation → loss e⁻, ON ↑
✔️ Reduction → gain e⁻, ON ↓
✔️ Oxidising agent → gains e⁻
✔️ Reducing agent → loses e⁻
✔️ Use half-reaction method for balancing

All cyclic compound ❤

Periodic table order
Exceptional like
1st ⭐#Radii grp 13 p block al>Ga
d series mn 3d5 sw so vahi sw reverse then fe=co=ni then cu<zn
2nd ⭐ #IE 3d<4d<5d but in 4th to 12th grp
4d=5d (appro) LC.
In grp 13 Beet, GAI
14th pb>sn
3rd ⭐EA : 2nd period se 3rd vale ki hmesha jyada
Highest Cl
Oxygen family M O last m

1️⃣ #CARBONFAMILY
✔️ Group number → 14
✔️ General electronic configuration:
📌 ns² np²
✔️ Members:
✔️ Carbon (C)
✔️ Silicon (Si)
✔️ Germanium (Ge)
✔️ Tin (Sn)
✔️ Lead (Pb)


2️⃣ #POSITIONINPERIODICTABLE
✔️ Lies between Boron family (13) & Nitrogen family (15)
✔️ First group containing non-metal → metalloid → metal trend
📌 Nature trend:
✔️ C → Non-metal
✔️ Si, Ge → Metalloids
✔️ Sn, Pb → Metals


3️⃣ #ATOMICANDPHYSICALPROPERTIES
✔️ Atomic radius ↑ down the group
✔️ Ionisation enthalpy ↓ down the group
✔️ Electronegativity ↓ down the group
📌 Density:
✔️ Increases downwards (exception: Pb irregularity)


4️⃣ #COVALENTCHARACTER
✔️ Strong covalent bonding (especially C, Si)
✔️ Due to:
✔️ Small size
✔️ High electronegativity
📌 Carbon shows maximum covalency (4)


5️⃣ #OXIDATIONSTATES ⭐ VERY IMP
✔️ Common oxidation states:
✔️ +4 and +2
📌 Stability trend:
✔️ +4 stable for C, Si
✔️ +2 stability ↑ down the group
📌 Reason:
✔️ Inert pair effect (Sn, Pb)
📌 Examples:
✔️ CO₂ → +4
✔️ CO → +2
✔️ SnCl₂ (+2) more stable than SnCl₄


6️⃣ #INERTPAIREFFECT
✔️ Poor shielding of d & f electrons
✔️ ns² electrons less available for bonding
📌 Order:
C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
✔️ Pb shows strongest inert pair effect


7️⃣ #CATABENATION (NEET FAV )
✔️ Ability to form long chains
📌 Order:
C >>> Si > Ge > Sn > Pb
📌 Reason:
✔️ Strong C–C bond
✔️ Small atomic size
✔️ Carbon forms:
✔️ Straight chains
✔️ Branched chains
✔️ Rings


8️⃣ #ALLOTROPY
✔️ Carbon shows extensive allotropy
📌 Allotropes of carbon:
✔️ Diamond → hardest, sp³
✔️ Graphite → conductor, sp²
✔️ Fullerene (C₆₀)
✔️ Si, Ge show limited allotropy


9️⃣ #HYDRIDES
✔️ General formula: MH₄
📌 Examples:
✔️ CH₄ → Methane
✔️ SiH₄ → Silane
📌 Stability:
CH₄ > SiH₄ > GeH₄ > SnH₄
✔️ Reducing character ↑ down group


1️⃣0️⃣ #HALIDES
✔️ General formula: MX₄
📌 Examples:
✔️ CCl₄
✔️ SiCl₄
📌 Hydrolysis:
✔️ CCl₄ → no hydrolysis
✔️ SiCl₄ → hydrolyses easily
📌 Reason:
✔️ Availability of vacant d-orbitals in Si


1️⃣1️⃣ #OXIDES
✔️ General formula: MO₂
📌 Nature:
✔️ CO₂ → acidic
✔️ SiO₂ → weakly acidic
✔️ SnO₂, PbO₂ → amphoteric
📌 Acidity ↓ down the group


1️⃣2️⃣ #ANOMALOUSBEHAVIOUROFCARBON
✔️ Small size
✔️ High electronegativity
✔️ Strong pπ–pπ bonding
✔️ Maximum catenation
✔️ No d-orbitals
📌 Hence carbon differs from rest of group


1️⃣3️⃣ #USES (NEET RELEVANT)
✔️ Carbon → fuels, organic compounds
✔️ Silicon → semiconductors, glass
✔️ Tin → coating (tin cans)
✔️ Lead → batteries, radiation shielding


1️⃣4️⃣ #NEETKEYPOINTS
✔️ +2 oxidation state stability ↑ down group
✔️ Inert pair effect strongest in Pb
✔️ Carbon shows maximum catenation
✔️ CO₂ acidic, PbO₂ amphoteric


1️⃣5️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Group 14 → ns² np²
✔️ C non-metal → Pb metal
✔️ Oxidation states +4, +2
✔️ Inert pair effect important
✔️ Carbon is exceptional

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1️⃣ #ISOMERISM
✔️ Compounds having same molecular formula
✔️ But different arrangement of atoms
✔️ Hence different properties
📌 Types:
✔️ Structural isomerism
✔️ Stereoisomerism


2️⃣ #STRUCTURALISOMERISM
✔️ Difference in connectivity of atoms
📌 Types:
✔️ Chain isomerism
✔️ Position isomerism
✔️ Functional isomerism
✔️ Metamerism
✔️ Tautomerism


3️⃣ #CHAINISOMERISM
✔️ Different carbon chain arrangement
📌 Example:
✔️ n-Butane & isobutane (C₄H₁₀)
✔️ Seen in alkanes


4️⃣ #POSITIONISOMERISM
✔️ Same functional group
✔️ Different position on carbon chain
📌 Example:
✔️ 1-butanol & 2-butanol


5️⃣ #FUNCTIONALISOMERISM ⭐
✔️ Different functional groups
📌 Example:
✔️ Alcohol (C₂H₆O) ↔ Ether (C₂H₆O)
✔️ Aldehyde ↔ Ketone
✔️ Very common NEET MCQ


6️⃣ #METAMERISM
✔️ Different alkyl groups around polyvalent atom
📌 Example:
✔️ Ethers, amines


7️⃣ #TAUTOMERISM ⭐⭐
✔️ Dynamic equilibrium between two structures
✔️ Differs in position of H and double bond
📌 Example:
✔️ Keto ⇌ Enol
✔️ Acid/base catalysed
✔️ Keto form usually more stable


8️⃣ #STEREOISOMERISM
✔️ Same structural formula
✔️ Different spatial arrangement
📌 Types:
✔️ Geometrical isomerism
✔️ Optical isomerism


9️⃣ #GEOMETRICALISOMERISM
✔️ Due to restricted rotation (C=C)
📌 Conditions:
✔️ Each C of double bond attached to two different groups
📌 Types:
✔️ cis
✔️ trans
📌 Example:
✔️ cis-2-butene & trans-2-butene


🔟 #OPTICALISOMERISM
✔️ Due to chiral carbon (asymmetric C)
📌 Chiral carbon:
✔️ Carbon attached to 4 different groups
📌 Property:
✔️ Rotates plane polarized light
✔️ d- & l- forms
PART–B : REACTION MECHANISM


1️⃣1️⃣ #REACTIONMECHANISM
✔️ Step-by-step description of how reaction occurs
✔️ Shows movement of electrons


1️⃣2️⃣ #BOND_FISSION
✔️ Breaking of covalent bond
📌 Types:
✔️ Homolytic
✔️ Heterolytic


1️⃣3️⃣ #HOMOLYTICFISSION
✔️ Equal bond breaking
✔️ Each atom gets one electron
📌 Forms:
✔️ Free radicals
📌 Example:
✔️ Cl₂ → 2Cl•
✔️ Occurs in UV / heat


1️⃣4️⃣ #HETEROLYTICFISSION
✔️ Unequal bond breaking
✔️ One atom gets both electrons
📌 Forms:
✔️ Carbocation
✔️ Carbanion
📌 Example:
✔️ CH₃–Cl → CH₃⁺ + Cl⁻


1️⃣5️⃣ #REACTIONINTERMEDIATES ⭐
✔️ Short-lived species
📌 Types:
✔️ Free radicals
✔️ Carbocation
✔️ Carbanion


1️⃣6️⃣ #CARBOCATION
✔️ Positively charged carbon
✔️ sp² hybridised
📌 Stability order:
✔️ 3° > 2° > 1° > CH₃⁺
✔️ Shows rearrangement


1️⃣7️⃣ #CARBANION
✔️ Negatively charged carbon
✔️ sp³ hybridised
📌 Stability order:
✔️ CH₃⁻ > 1° > 2° > 3°


1️⃣8️⃣ #FREERADICAL
✔️ Neutral species with unpaired electron
📌 Stability order:
✔️ 3° > 2° > 1° > CH₃

1️⃣9️⃣ #NUCLEOPHILE
✔️ Electron-rich species
✔️ Donates electron pair
📌 Examples:
✔️ OH⁻, CN⁻, NH₃


2️⃣0️⃣ #ELECTROPHILE
✔️ Electron-deficient species
✔️ Accepts electron pair
📌 Examples:
✔️ H⁺, NO₂⁺, BF₃


2️⃣1️⃣ #NEET⚠️IMPORTANTPOINTS
✔️ Functional isomerism very common
✔️ Tautomerism = dynamic equilibrium
✔️ Stability of carbocation frequently asked
✔️ Identify nucleophile/electrophile carefully


2️⃣2️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Same formula, different structure → isomerism
✔️ Keto–enol = tautomerism
✔️ Chiral carbon → optical activity
✔️ Carbocation most stable = 3°
✔️ Nucleophile = electron donor

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#ALKANES
✔️ Saturated hydrocarbons
✔️ Only C–C & C–H single bonds
✔️ Least reactive hydrocarbons
📌 General formula:
✔️ CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
📌 Hybridisation:
✔️ Carbon → sp³
📌 Geometry:
✔️ Tetrahedral (109.5°)


2️⃣ #NOMENCLATURE
✔️ Longest carbon chain = parent
✔️ Lowest locant rule
✔️ Alkyl groups as substituents
📌 Example:
✔️ (CH₃)₃CH → 2-methylpropane


3️⃣ #ISOMERISM ⭐
✔️ Chain isomerism only
📌 First alkane showing isomerism:
✔️ Butane (C₄H₁₀) ⭐⭐
📌 Note:
✔️ More branching → more stable


4️⃣ #PHYSICALPROPERTIES
✔️ Colourless, odourless
✔️ Insoluble in water
✔️ Soluble in organic solvents
📌 Boiling point:
✔️ ↑ with molar mass
✔️ Straight chain > branched ⭐


5️⃣ #PREPARATIONOFALKANES
(a) #WURTZREACTION ⭐
✔️ Alkyl halide + Na (dry ether)
📌 Reaction:
2R–X + 2Na → R–R + 2NaX
📌 Limitation:
✔️ Unsymmetrical alkanes not formed
(b) #DECARBOXYLATION
✔️ Sodium salt + soda lime
📌 Reaction:
R–COONa → R–H + Na₂CO₃
✔️ Carbon number decreases by 1
(c) #KOLBEELECTROLYSIS ⭐
✔️ Electrolysis of sodium salt of acid
📌 Product:
✔️ Alkane with even number of carbons


6️⃣ #CHEMICALPROPERTIES ⭐⭐


7️⃣ #COMBUSTION
✔️ Burns in excess O₂
✔️ Highly exothermic
📌 Example:
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O


8️⃣ #SUBSTITUTIONREACTION ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ Characteristic reaction of alkanes
📌 Halogenation:
✔️ UV light / heat
📌 Example:
CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl
✔️ Free-radical mechanism


9️⃣ #FREERADICALMECHANISM ⭐⭐
📌 Steps:
✔️ Initiation
✔️ Propagation
✔️ Termination
📌 Radical stability:
✔️ 3° > 2° > 1° > CH₃•


🔟 #SELECTIVITYOFHALOGENS
✔️ Chlorination → fast, less selective
✔️ Bromination → slow, more selective
📌 Reactivity:
F₂ > Cl₂ > Br₂ > I₂


1️⃣1️⃣ #CONTROLLEDOXIDATION ⭐
✔️ Oxidising agents: KMnO₄ / K₂Cr₂O₇
📌 NCERT sequence:
CH₄ → HCHO → HCOOH → CO₂


1️⃣2️⃣ #NITRATIONOFALKANES
✔️ With conc. HNO₃
📌 Condition:
✔️ 400–500 K
📌 Example:
CH₄ → CH₃NO₂


1️⃣3️⃣ #ISOMERISATION ⭐
✔️ Straight chain → branched
📌 Catalyst:
✔️ Anhydrous AlCl₃ / HCl
📌 Example:
n-Butane → Isobutane


1️⃣4️⃣ #PYROLYSIS / CRACKING ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ Thermal decomposition
✔️ Absence of air
📌 Products:
✔️ Lower alkane + alkene
📌 Example:
C₁₀H₂₂ → C₅H₁₂ + C₅H₁₀


1️⃣5️⃣ #AROMATISATION (REFORMING)
✔️ Higher alkanes → aromatic
📌 Example:
n-Hexane → Benzene + H₂
📌 Conditions:
✔️ 773 K
✔️ Pt / Cr₂O₃ / Al₂O₃


1️⃣6️⃣ #CONFORMATIONSOFETHANE ⭐
✔️ Due to C–C rotation
📌 Types:
✔️ Staggered (most stable)
✔️ Eclipsed (least stable)
📌 Reason:
✔️ Torsional strain


1️⃣7️⃣ #NEETIMPORTANTPOINTS
✔️ Alkanes → substitution only
✔️ First isomerism → butane
✔️ Branched alkane → lower BP
✔️ Cracking = alkene + alkane
✔️ Free radical mechanism


1️⃣8️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Alkanes = saturated
✔️ Formula = CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
✔️ sp³ hybridisation
✔️ Halogenation = substitution
✔️ Combustion highly exothermic

1️⃣ #ALKENES
✔️ Unsaturated hydrocarbons
✔️ Contain one or more C=C double bond
📌 General formula:
✔️ CₙH₂ₙ (one double bond)
📌 Hybridisation:
✔️ Carbon of C=C → sp²
📌 Geometry:
✔️ Trigonal planar (120°)


2️⃣ #NOMENCLATURE
✔️ Longest chain containing C=C
✔️ Lowest number to double bond
✔️ Suffix → –ene
📌 Example:
✔️ CH₂=CH₂ → Ethene


3️⃣ #ISOMERISM ⭐
✔️ Chain isomerism
✔️ Position isomerism
✔️ Geometrical isomerism (cis–trans) ⭐⭐
📌 Condition for geometrical isomerism:
✔️ Each C of C=C attached to two different groups


4️⃣ #PHYSICALPROPERTIES
✔️ Colourless
✔️ Insoluble in water
✔️ Slightly soluble in organic solvents
📌 Boiling point:
✔️ Increases with molar mass
✔️ cis > trans (due to polarity) ⭐


5️⃣ #PREPARATIONOFALKENES
(a) #DEHYDRATIONOFALCOHOL ⭐
✔️ Alcohol → Alkene + H₂O
📌 Reagent:
✔️ Conc. H₂SO₄ (443 K)
✔️ Al₂O₃ (623 K)
📌 Example:
CH₃CH₂OH → CH₂=CH₂
(b) #DEHYDROHALOGENATION ⭐
✔️ Alkyl halide + alcoholic KOH
📌 Example:
CH₃CH₂Cl → CH₂=CH₂
(c) #DEHALOGENATION
✔️ Vicinal dihalide + Zn
📌 Example:
BrCH₂–CH₂Br → CH₂=CH₂


6️⃣ #CHEMICALPROPERTIES ⭐⭐


7️⃣ #ADDITIONREACTIONS ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ Characteristic reaction of alkenes
(a) #HYDROGENATION
✔️ Alkene + H₂ → Alkane
📌 Catalyst:
✔️ Ni / Pt / Pd
📌 Example:
CH₂=CH₂ → CH₃–CH₃
(b) #HALOGENATION ⭐
✔️ Alkene + X₂
📌 Observation:
✔️ Decolourisation of bromine water ⭐
📌 Example:
CH₂=CH₂ + Br₂ → BrCH₂–CH₂Br
(c) #HYDROHALOGENATION ⭐⭐
✔️ Alkene + HX
📌 Follows Markovnikov’s rule
📌 Example:
CH₃–CH=CH₂ + HBr → CH₃–CHBr–CH₃


8️⃣ #MARKOVNIKOVSRULE ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ H adds to C with more H atoms
✔️ X adds to C with less H atoms


9️⃣ #ANTIMARKOVNIKOVRULE (PEROXIDEEFFECT) ⭐⭐
✔️ In presence of peroxide
✔️ Only with HBr
📌 Example:
CH₃–CH=CH₂ + HBr → CH₃–CH₂–CH₂Br


🔟 #HYDRATIONOFALKENES
✔️ Alkene + H₂O → Alcohol
📌 Catalyst:
✔️ Dil. H₂SO₄
📌 Follows Markovnikov rule


1️⃣1️⃣ #OXIDATIONOFALKENES ⭐⭐
(a) Mild oxidation
✔️ Cold alkaline KMnO₄
✔️ Gives vicinal diol (glycol)
📌 Test:
✔️ Baeyer’s test ⭐
(b) Ozonolysis ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ Alkene + O₃
📌 Product:
✔️ Aldehydes / ketones
📌 Used to locate double bond


1️⃣2️⃣ #POLYMERISATION ⭐
✔️ Many alkene molecules → polymer
📌 Example:
✔️ Ethene → Polyethene


1️⃣3️⃣ #STABILITYOFALKENES ⭐
✔️ More substituted alkene → more stable
📌 Order:
✔️ Tetra > Tri > Di > Mono


1️⃣4️⃣ #NEETIMPORTANTPOINTS
✔️ Alkenes show addition reactions
✔️ Markovnikov rule frequently asked
✔️ Peroxide effect only with HBr
✔️ Baeyer test detects C=C
✔️ Ozonolysis → double bond position


1️⃣5️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Alkenes = unsaturated
✔️ Formula = CₙH₂ₙ
✔️ sp² hybridisation
✔️ Addition reactions dominate
✔️ Ozonolysis identifies structure

1️⃣ #SOLUTION
✔️ Homogeneous mixture
✔️ Consists of solute + solvent
📌 Example:
✔️ Sugar in water


2️⃣ #TYPESOFSOLUTIONS
✔️ Solid in liquid → sugar + water
✔️ Liquid in liquid → alcohol + water
✔️ Gas in liquid → CO₂ in water
✔️ Gas in gas → air


3️⃣ #SOLUBILITY ⭐
✔️ Maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent
✔️ At given temperature & pressure
📌 Units:
✔️ g / 100 g solvent
✔️ mol L⁻¹


4️⃣ #FACTORAFFECTINGSOLUBILITY ⭐⭐
(a) Nature of solute & solvent
✔️ Like dissolves like
✔️ Polar in polar, non-polar in non-polar
(b) Temperature
✔️ Solid in liquid → solubility ↑ with temp
✔️ Gas in liquid → solubility ↓ with temp ⭐
(c) Pressure
✔️ Significant only for gases
✔️ Solubility ↑ with pressure


5️⃣ #HENRYSLAW ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ Solubility of gas ∝ pressure of gas
📌 Statement:
✔️ At constant temperature, amount of gas dissolved is directly proportional to its partial pressure
📌 Formula:
✔️ p = kₕ x
Where:
✔️ p = partial pressure
✔️ x = mole fraction
✔️ kₕ = Henry’s constant
📌 Applications (PYQ):
✔️ Soft drinks
✔️ Scuba diving
✔️ High altitude sickness


6️⃣ #SOLUBILITYOFGASES ⭐⭐
✔️ Increases with pressure
✔️ Decreases with temperature
📌 Example:
✔️ Cold water holds more oxygen


7️⃣ #RAOULTSLAW ⭐⭐⭐
✔️ For ideal solutions
📌 Statement:
✔️ Partial vapour pressure of each component ∝ its mole fraction
📌 Formula:
✔️ pₐ = xₐ pₐ⁰
✔️ Total pressure = pₐ + pᵦ


8️⃣ #IDEALSOLUTION
✔️ Obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations
✔️ ΔHmix = 0
✔️ ΔVmix = 0
📌 Example:
✔️ Benzene + toluene


9️⃣ #NON-IDEALSOLUTION
✔️ Deviates from Raoult’s law
📌 Types:
✔️ Positive deviation
✔️ Negative deviation


🔟 #POSITIVEDDEVIATION ⭐
✔️ A–B attraction < A–A or B–B
✔️ Vapour pressure ↑
📌 Example:
✔️ Ethanol + acetone


1️⃣1️⃣ #NEGATIVEDEVIATION ⭐
✔️ A–B attraction > A–A or B–B
✔️ Vapour pressure ↓
📌 Example:
✔️ Chloroform + acetone


1️⃣2️⃣ #COLLIGATIVEPROPERTIES ⭐⭐
✔️ Depend only on number of solute particles
📌 Types:
✔️ Relative lowering of vapour pressure
✔️ Elevation of boiling point
✔️ Depression of freezing point
✔️ Osmotic pressure


1️⃣3️⃣ #OSMOTICPRESSURE ⭐⭐
✔️ Pressure required to stop osmosis
📌 Formula:
✔️ π = CRT
✔️ Used to determine molar mass


1️⃣4️⃣ #NEETIMPORTANTPOINTS
✔️ Henry’s law → gases
✔️ Raoult’s law → ideal solutions
✔️ Gas solubility ↓ with temp
✔️ Colligative properties depend on particles
✔️ Osmotic pressure works at room temp


1️⃣5️⃣ #ONELINEREVISION
✔️ Solution = homogeneous mixture
✔️ Solubility depends on T, P, nature
✔️ Henry’s law → p ∝ x
✔️ Raoult’s law → vapour pressure
✔️ Colligative → number of particles