The Nagatitan, the largest-ever dinosaur found in South-East Asia, weighed 27 tonnes - as much as nine adult Asian elephants - and measured 27m (88ft) in length, longer than a diplodocus.

Like that dinosaur, it belonged to the sauropod family of long-necked herbivores.

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Austerity Measures in India

• Austerity = Government measures to reduce expenditure/imports and conserve forex during economic stress.

• Major Indian austerity phases:
1965–66 (war + food crisis), 1990–91 (BoP crisis), 2008–09 (global crisis), 2025–26 (CAD pressure).

• Lal Bahadur Shastri’s 1965 “Monday fast” appeal aimed at saving food grains during severe shortage.

• 1991 BoP crisis was triggered by Gulf War oil shock, high fiscal deficit and falling forex reserves.

• India pledged gold reserves in 1991 to raise foreign exchange.

• CAD (Current Account Deficit) rises when imports exceed exports; crude oil and gold are major contributors.

• Import cover = Number of months imports can be financed using forex reserves.

• Forex reserves are maintained by Reserve Bank of India and include foreign currency assets, gold, SDRs and IMF reserve position.

• Fiscal Deficit = Total expenditure − (Revenue receipts + Non-debt capital receipts).

• India abolished Plan vs Non-Plan expenditure classification in 2017.

• Plan Expenditure (abolished in 2017) = Spending on schemes/projects under Five-Year Plans; Non-Plan Expenditure = Routine expenses like salaries, subsidies, pensions, defence and interest payments.

• India replaced Plan/Non-Plan classification with Revenue and Capital expenditure after abolition of Planning Commission.

• Revenue expenditure includes subsidies, salaries, pensions and interest payments; capital expenditure creates assets/infrastructure.

• 1991 crisis led to LPG reforms:- Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation.

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Answer: (a) Interest payments

Non-Plan Expenditure referred to routine and obligatory government expenses such as interest payments, defence, pensions, subsidies, etc., while sectors like agriculture and science & technology were mainly part of Plan Expenditure.

Note: The Plan vs Non-Plan classification was abolished from Budget 2017–18; now expenditure is classified as Revenue and Capital expenditure.

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• V. D. Satheesan was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Kerala, leading the Congress-led United Democratic Front (UDF) back to power after a decade.
• V. D. Satheesan represents Paravur Assembly constituency in Ernakulam district and has been winning continuously since 2001.


SNDP Yogam (Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam), founded in 1903, is a major socio-religious reform organisation associated with the Ezhava community of Kerala.
• SNDP was inspired by Sree Narayana Guru, who gave the slogan: “One Caste, One Religion, One God for Mankind.”
• HQ - Kollam, Kerala.

• NSS (Nair Service Society), founded in 1914 by Mannath Padmanabhan, is a socio-cultural organisation of the Nair community.
• HQ - Perunna, Kottayam district, Kerala.

• Both SNDP and NSS are non-political organisations but exert significant influence on Kerala politics and elections.

• Sree Narayana Guru, Ayyankali and Chattampi Swamikal are considered major social reformers of Kerala Renaissance movement.

• ASML is the world’s leading supplier of photolithography machines used for advanced semiconductor chip manufacturing; it is the only company producing commercial Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithography systems.

• Tata Electronics signed an agreement with ASML to support semiconductor fabrication in Dholera, Gujarat.

• Dholera, Gujarat hosts India’s first planned semiconductor fabrication ecosystem under the Dholera Special Investment Region (DSIR) and is part of the Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC).

• Dholera Semiconductor Fab project is among India’s major initiatives under the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) to reduce dependence on imported chips.

• Port of Rotterdam is Europe’s largest seaport and acts as a major gateway for Indian exports into Europe.

Interlink: https://t.me/bpscweb/43845

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• Rotterdam lies on the Rhine River–Meuse delta in the Netherlands; it hosts one of the world’s largest ports.

• Paris is situated on the Seine River, which flows entirely within France and drains into the English Channel.

• Budapest is divided into Buda and Pest by the Danube River - the second-longest river in Europe after the Volga.

• Washington, D.C. is located on the Potomac River, which forms part of the boundary between Maryland and Virginia in the United States.

• Rhine flows through:
Switz.—>Liechtenstein —>Austria —>Germany—> France —> Netherlands.

• Empties into the North Sea.
• Known as the “lifeline of European trade.”

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• Barakah Nuclear Power Plant(UAE) is the first and only nuclear power plant in the Arab world.

• Barakah Nuclear Power Plant was built by the UAE with assistance from South Korea and became operational in 2020. The plant can supply nearly one-fourth of the UAE’s electricity needs.

• International Atomic Energy Agency is headquartered in Vienna and functions as the UN’s nuclear watchdog.

• Current Director General of IAEA: Rafael Mariano Grossi.

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Volcano Eruption

Building inter Linkages

1. https://t.me/civils_web/13709

2. https://t.me/civils_web/11576

3. https://t.me/civils_web/9653

PYQs linked to volcanoes

https://t.me/civils_web/13733