def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    if path:
        with open(path) as f:
            print(f.read(), end='')
    else:
        print(file_obj.read(), end='')

def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    with ExitStack() as stack:
        if path:
            file_obj = stack.enter_context(
                open(path)
            )

        print(file_obj.read(), end='')

def print_whole_file(
    *,
    path: Optional[str] = None,
    file_obj: Optional[TextIO] = None
):
    assert path or file_obj

    if path:
        context = open(path)
    else:
        context = nullcontext(file_obj)

    with context as f:
        print(f.read(), end='')

try:
    await action()
except asyncio.CancelledError:
    raise
except Exception:
    logging.exception('action failed')

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        print(x)
        x *= 2
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

def make_closure(x):
    def closure():
        nonlocal x
        print(x)
        x *= 2
        print(x)

    return closure

make_closure(2)()

@property
def x(self):
    return self._x

@x.setter
def x(self, value):
    self._x = value

from functools import wraps

def make_case_decorator(func):
    def case_decorator(*case_decorator_args):
        def decorator(special_case_func):
            @wraps(func)
            def decorated(*args):
                if case_decorator_args == args:
                    return special_case_func(*args)
                return func(*args)

            decorated.case = make_case_decorator(decorated)

            return decorated

        return decorator

    return case_decorator


def special_cases(func):
    @wraps(func)
    def decorated(*args):
        return func(*args)

    decorated.case = make_case_decorator(decorated)

    return decorated


@special_cases
def fact(x):
    return x * fact(x - 1)

@fact.case(0)
def fact(x):
    return 1

@fact.case(10)
def fact(x):
    print(f'(сработала оптимизация для {x})')
    return 3628800

from contextlib import contextmanager
import time


@contextmanager
def timeit():
    start = time.monotonic()
    yield
    print(time.monotonic() - start)

def main():
    with timeit():
        time.sleep(2)

main()

>>> from sys import getsizeof
>>> class A:
...     pass
... 
>>> a = dict()
>>> b = A().__dict__
>>> type(a)
<class 'dict'>
>>> type(b)
<class 'dict'>
>>> a
{}
>>> b
{}
>>> getsizeof(a)
240
>>> getsizeof(b)
112

>>> [1, 2] + [2, 3]
[1, 2, 2, 3]

>>> (1, 2) + (2, 3)
(1, 2, 2, 3)

>>> "12" + "23"
'1223'

>>> deque([1, 2]) + deque([2, 3])
deque([1, 2, 2, 3])

>>> {1, 2} | {2, 3}
{1, 2, 3}

>>> {**dict(a=1, b=2), **dict(b=3, c=4)}
{'a': 1, 'b': 3, 'c': 4}

>>> {**dict(b=3, c=4), **dict(a=1, b=2)}
{'b': 2, 'c': 4, 'a': 1}

>>> Counter(dict(a=1, b=2)) + Counter(dict(b=3, c=4))
Counter({'b': 5, 'c': 4, 'a': 1})

ES_TAILS = ('s', 'x', 'z', 'ch', 'sh')

def make_plural(word, exceptions=None):
    if exceptions == None:  # ← ← ←
        exceptions = {}

    if word in exceptions:
        return exceptions[word]
    elif any(word.endswith(t) for t in ES_TAILS):
        return word + 'es'
    elif word.endswith('y'):
        return word[0:-1] + 'ies'
    else:
        return word + 's'

exceptions = dict(
    mouse='mice',
)

print(make_plural('python'))
print(make_plural('bash'))
print(make_plural('ruby'))
print(make_plural('mouse', exceptions=exceptions))

class A:
    def __eq__(self, other):
        return True

print(A() == None)  # True
print(A() is None)  # False

>>> math.nan == math.nan
False

>>> float('nan')
nan
>>> float('nan') is float('nan')
False

>>> d = {}
>>> d[float('nan')] = 1
>>> d[float('nan')] = 2
>>> d
{nan: 1, nan: 2}

>>> [1, 2].__class__
<class 'list'>

>>> type([1, 2])
<class 'list'>

>>> class A:
...     pass
...
>>> class B(A):
...     pass
...
>>> type(B())
<class '__main__.B'>
>>> isinstance(B(), A)
True

from collections import deque
from math import sqrt


class Compose:
    def __init__(self):
        self._functions = deque()

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        result = None
        for f in self._functions:
            result = f(*args, **kwargs)
            args = [result]
            kwargs = dict()
        return result

    def __rshift__(self, f):
        self._functions.append(f)
        return self

    def __lshift__(self, f):
        self._functions.appendleft(f)
        return self


compose = Compose


sqrt_abs = (compose() << sqrt << abs)
sqrt_abs2 = (compose() >> abs >> sqrt)

print(sqrt_abs(-4))   # 2.0
print(sqrt_abs2(-4))  # 2.0

In : class D(dict):
...:     pass
...:

In : class A:
...:     pass
...:

In : object.__new__(A)
Out: <__main__.A at 0x7f200c8902e8>

In : object.__new__(D)
...
TypeError: object.__new__(D) is not safe,
use D.__new__()

$ echo '{"a": [], "b": "c"}' | python -m json.tool
{
    "a": [],
    "b": "c"
}

def gen():
    try:
        yield 1
        yield 2
    finally:
        print('END')


g = gen()
print(next(g))  # выведет '1'
g.close()       # выведет 'END'

def gen():
    try:
        yield 1
    finally:
        yield 3  # ошибка!


g = gen()
next(g)
g.close()  # RuntimeError

def gen():
    try:
        yield 1
    finally:
        print('END')


g = gen()
g.close()         # ничего не выводит
print(list(g))    # выведет '[]'

def gen():
    try:
        yield 1
        yield 2
    finally:
        print('END')


g = gen()
print(list(g))     # ['1', '2']
print('Closing now')
g.close()

# Вывод:
# END
# [1, 2]
# Closing now

   from functools import partial

   def multiply(x, y):
       return x * y

   double = partial(multiply, 2)
   print(double(5))  # Вывод: 10
   

   from functools import reduce

   numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
   product = reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, numbers)
   print(product)  # Вывод: 24
   

   from functools import lru_cache

   @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
   def fibonacci(n):
       if n < 2:
           return n
       return fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2)

   print(fibonacci(10))  # Вывод: 55
   

   from functools import wraps

   def my_decorator(func):
       @wraps(func)
       def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
           print("Что-то делаем перед вызовом функции")
           return func(*args, **kwargs)
       return wrapper

   @my_decorator
   def say_hello():
       """Выводит приветствие."""
       print("Привет!")

   print(say_hello.__name__)  # Вывод: say_hello
   print(say_hello.__doc__)   # Вывод: Выводит приветствие.
   

   from functools import total_ordering

   @total_ordering
   class Point:
       def __init__(self, x, y):
           self.x = x
           self.y = y

       def __eq__(self, other):
           return (self.x, self.y) == (other.x, other.y)

       def __lt__(self, other):
           return (self.x, self.y) < (other.x, other.y)

   p1 = Point(1, 2)
   p2 = Point(3, 4)
   print(p1 < p2)  # Вывод: True
   print(p1 <= p2)  # Вывод: True
   

class Pair:
    def __init__(self, left, right):
        self.left = left
        self.right = right
        
    def __repr__(self):
        class_name = type(self).__name__
        return f'{class_name}({self.left!r}, {self.right!r})'