WHY do old books smell like that?
The specific aroma of time-worn books comes from the decomposition of chemical compounds. It is primarily cellulose fibers and lignin, which binds them and fills the voids.
Lignin is a natural polymeric compound found in the vascular cells of some plants. It is a highly labile substance, easily interacting with chemical reagents or the environment.
Under the influence of oxygen, lignin decomposes into acids, which break down cellulose fibers.
The specific aroma of time-worn books comes from the decomposition of chemical compounds. It is primarily cellulose fibers and lignin, which binds them and fills the voids.
Lignin is a natural polymeric compound found in the vascular cells of some plants. It is a highly labile substance, easily interacting with chemical reagents or the environment.
Under the influence of oxygen, lignin decomposes into acids, which break down cellulose fibers.
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WHY do we cry when chopping onions?
Onions are full of volatile oils giving the plant its characteristic aroma. These oils contain organic substances called amino acid sulfoxides.
When onions are cut, the structure of their tissues gets disrupted. Cells are torn, causing the release of sulfonic acid, which turns into thiopropionaldehyde-S-oxide — namely it causes tears.
In addition, these acids condense into a form of thiosulfite, which gives onions their characteristic smell.
Onions are full of volatile oils giving the plant its characteristic aroma. These oils contain organic substances called amino acid sulfoxides.
When onions are cut, the structure of their tissues gets disrupted. Cells are torn, causing the release of sulfonic acid, which turns into thiopropionaldehyde-S-oxide — namely it causes tears.
In addition, these acids condense into a form of thiosulfite, which gives onions their characteristic smell.
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WHY does a jellyfish sting and using what?
On the edges of the jellyfish's body lie tentacles with cells containing capsules of venom that cause burns.
The tiny stingers paralyze small prey. Jellyfish stalk fish and other sea creatures, and humans frequently fall prey to the toxin as well.
Even a jellyfish newly washed ashore is hazardous as long as its tentacles are wet.
There are several species of jellyfish capable of killing humans with their venom, such as the sea wasp, found in the coastal waters of Australia. The same one depicted here.
On the edges of the jellyfish's body lie tentacles with cells containing capsules of venom that cause burns.
The tiny stingers paralyze small prey. Jellyfish stalk fish and other sea creatures, and humans frequently fall prey to the toxin as well.
Even a jellyfish newly washed ashore is hazardous as long as its tentacles are wet.
There are several species of jellyfish capable of killing humans with their venom, such as the sea wasp, found in the coastal waters of Australia. The same one depicted here.
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WHY do apples turn darker when cut?
Apples contain antioxidants, which are thought to make these fruits healthy.
Antioxidants include a whole group of substances called polyphenols. Along with them, apples feature a polyphenol oxidase enzyme responsible for the oxidation of polyphenols.
Oxygen is required for these two substances to start interacting, thus the undamaged apple does not darken. So, it's the oxidation process, not of iron, but of the polyphenols, actually causes the apples to darken.
The film formed at the site of damage protects the apple from parasites and microorganisms. The substances it contains make the bitten pulp unpalatable not only for humans, but also for caterpillars.
Apples contain antioxidants, which are thought to make these fruits healthy.
Antioxidants include a whole group of substances called polyphenols. Along with them, apples feature a polyphenol oxidase enzyme responsible for the oxidation of polyphenols.
Oxygen is required for these two substances to start interacting, thus the undamaged apple does not darken. So, it's the oxidation process, not of iron, but of the polyphenols, actually causes the apples to darken.
The film formed at the site of damage protects the apple from parasites and microorganisms. The substances it contains make the bitten pulp unpalatable not only for humans, but also for caterpillars.
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WHY are matches called Swedish?
Since the 1830s, matches were produced in France and Germany with heads containing white phosphorus. The substance is extremely poisonous and chemically highly reactive, so that matches could be ignited by friction right in the box.
Professor Gustaf Erik Pasch of Karolinska Institute in Sweden suggested in 1844 to take the phosphorus out of the heads and to put it on a special grater on the box.
And besides, he replaced white phosphorus with red, less harmful one.
Since the 1830s, matches were produced in France and Germany with heads containing white phosphorus. The substance is extremely poisonous and chemically highly reactive, so that matches could be ignited by friction right in the box.
Professor Gustaf Erik Pasch of Karolinska Institute in Sweden suggested in 1844 to take the phosphorus out of the heads and to put it on a special grater on the box.
And besides, he replaced white phosphorus with red, less harmful one.
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WHY do elk drop their antlers?
Elk and other deer antlers serve only to attract females and as a tournament weapon. Outside the breeding season, antlers are of no use.
Meanwhile, wearing such a heavy and cumbersome "crown" makes it hard to move in the woods and requires extra effort. Which is especially troublesome in winter, when the amount of forage is limited, and wolves are almost completely switched to eating ungulates.
Elk and other deer antlers serve only to attract females and as a tournament weapon. Outside the breeding season, antlers are of no use.
Meanwhile, wearing such a heavy and cumbersome "crown" makes it hard to move in the woods and requires extra effort. Which is especially troublesome in winter, when the amount of forage is limited, and wolves are almost completely switched to eating ungulates.
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WHY do ibexes stay on steep cliffs?
On a perfectly smooth wall, ibexes won't hold up.
Though, they can stand on tiny rock ledges and even run on them. Hooves of goats are narrow, hard, able to move apart widely. They have soft sensitive pads partially covering the stone the animal has stepped on and creating additional traction.
Equally vital are the animal's exceptional sense of balance, precise coordination of movements, and sharp eyesight, which allows it to see the unevenness of the wall. If the stone the goat has stepped on is too narrow, the animal immediately pushes off and jumps further.
On a perfectly smooth wall, ibexes won't hold up.
Though, they can stand on tiny rock ledges and even run on them. Hooves of goats are narrow, hard, able to move apart widely. They have soft sensitive pads partially covering the stone the animal has stepped on and creating additional traction.
Equally vital are the animal's exceptional sense of balance, precise coordination of movements, and sharp eyesight, which allows it to see the unevenness of the wall. If the stone the goat has stepped on is too narrow, the animal immediately pushes off and jumps further.
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WHY do all superheroes wear trunks outside?
At the time when Superman appeared, circus strongmen and their performances were extremely popular with the public. They were the ones who wore boxer-style trunks and a wide belt over their tights.
It was done from a practical point of view. Tricot of that time period was not of high quality and could simply tear in the wrong place at the wrong time. The same trunks securely hid such an unpleasant picture, if it really happened.
Also at that time, comics were printed in black and white or in four colors. The skinny superheroes' tights saved time in drawing out creases and other costume details, and the red type of shorts served as a bright accent that broke the monotony of the image.
At the time when Superman appeared, circus strongmen and their performances were extremely popular with the public. They were the ones who wore boxer-style trunks and a wide belt over their tights.
It was done from a practical point of view. Tricot of that time period was not of high quality and could simply tear in the wrong place at the wrong time. The same trunks securely hid such an unpleasant picture, if it really happened.
Also at that time, comics were printed in black and white or in four colors. The skinny superheroes' tights saved time in drawing out creases and other costume details, and the red type of shorts served as a bright accent that broke the monotony of the image.
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WHY do oil rigs burn?
Along with the oil, combustible gas, a mixture of volatile hydrocarbons dissolved into the oil at depth under high pressure, flows out of the wells.
Associated gas can be gathered and processed, though since it's typically scarce, not always cost-effective.
Releasing it into the atmosphere in its pure form is not healthy for environmental and safety reasons. Therefore, the gas is burned in flares.
Along with the oil, combustible gas, a mixture of volatile hydrocarbons dissolved into the oil at depth under high pressure, flows out of the wells.
Associated gas can be gathered and processed, though since it's typically scarce, not always cost-effective.
Releasing it into the atmosphere in its pure form is not healthy for environmental and safety reasons. Therefore, the gas is burned in flares.
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WHY do women over 60 dye their hair purple?
Well, it's pretty simple, gray hair is highly visible when growing out at the roots, so one can't dye it on a daily basis.
In their 60s, most people's hair turns gray, and very few have white ones. Many have a slightly grayish-yellowish color, an ugly shade, so they use violet toner.
This color absorbs the yellowness, and purple is really refreshing.
Well, it's pretty simple, gray hair is highly visible when growing out at the roots, so one can't dye it on a daily basis.
In their 60s, most people's hair turns gray, and very few have white ones. Many have a slightly grayish-yellowish color, an ugly shade, so they use violet toner.
This color absorbs the yellowness, and purple is really refreshing.
WHY does a witty answer only come to mind after the conversation is over?
This phenomenon was described by the philosopher Denis Diderot as early as the 18th century, and he gave it a name: "the ladder mind". At a dinner party in a dispute with his opponent, Diderot was so flustered that he could not adequately respond to the attacks of his interlocutor. Yet when he went out to catch his breath on the stairs, the perfect answer was there.
In a stressful situation (argument, debate, criticism), the brain starts to think in patterns, and nothing but the standard "who`s talking" comes to mind.
Never be afraid of saying the wrong thing: relax and don't look for the ideal answer. If you can learn not to twitch during an argument, then great phrases will be born by themselves.
This phenomenon was described by the philosopher Denis Diderot as early as the 18th century, and he gave it a name: "the ladder mind". At a dinner party in a dispute with his opponent, Diderot was so flustered that he could not adequately respond to the attacks of his interlocutor. Yet when he went out to catch his breath on the stairs, the perfect answer was there.
In a stressful situation (argument, debate, criticism), the brain starts to think in patterns, and nothing but the standard "who`s talking" comes to mind.
Never be afraid of saying the wrong thing: relax and don't look for the ideal answer. If you can learn not to twitch during an argument, then great phrases will be born by themselves.
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WHY was sushi not originally eaten with rice?
Sushi emerged in Southeast Asia, where boiled rice was used to ferment fish. This allowed it to be stored for a long time. However, only fish was eaten in this sushi, and fermented sour rice was discarded.
In the 14th-16th centuries, the Japanese came up with the idea of adding vinegar to rice, which made it also suitable for consumption and accelerated the fermentation process. And only at the beginning of the 19th century chef Yohei Hanaya suggested eating raw fish with rice, thereby creating modern sushi.
Sushi emerged in Southeast Asia, where boiled rice was used to ferment fish. This allowed it to be stored for a long time. However, only fish was eaten in this sushi, and fermented sour rice was discarded.
In the 14th-16th centuries, the Japanese came up with the idea of adding vinegar to rice, which made it also suitable for consumption and accelerated the fermentation process. And only at the beginning of the 19th century chef Yohei Hanaya suggested eating raw fish with rice, thereby creating modern sushi.
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WHY is a word sometimes "on the tip of our tongue" but we cannot recall it?
In our brains, various departments are responsible for memory, figurative thinking, sensation, and speech, "naming". Apparently, some times they fail to work in sync so that you remember the image, feel everything connected with it, but the speech department refuses to give out the result.
The more you wish to recall, the less likely it is that you will succeed. Studies indicate that such "forgetting" situations occur more and more frequently as we age. Yet the cause isn't always age-related mental deterioration.
The point, as it turns out, is in the accumulated experience — the more there is, the more complicated the work of the centers involved in thinking and the more likely there are failures and internal conflicts.
In our brains, various departments are responsible for memory, figurative thinking, sensation, and speech, "naming". Apparently, some times they fail to work in sync so that you remember the image, feel everything connected with it, but the speech department refuses to give out the result.
The more you wish to recall, the less likely it is that you will succeed. Studies indicate that such "forgetting" situations occur more and more frequently as we age. Yet the cause isn't always age-related mental deterioration.
The point, as it turns out, is in the accumulated experience — the more there is, the more complicated the work of the centers involved in thinking and the more likely there are failures and internal conflicts.
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WHY don't mosquitoes carry HIV?
When a mosquito bites, it injects saliva containing special substances, not blood from a previous bite. HIV cannot develop in a mosquito or any other blood-sucking insect.
In many cases, however, an insect attack can result in more than just allergies. Mosquitoes carry such unpleasant diseases as Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, Lyme disease, Dengue fever, Zika virus, leishmaniasis and, obviously, the well-known malaria.
When a mosquito bites, it injects saliva containing special substances, not blood from a previous bite. HIV cannot develop in a mosquito or any other blood-sucking insect.
In many cases, however, an insect attack can result in more than just allergies. Mosquitoes carry such unpleasant diseases as Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, Lyme disease, Dengue fever, Zika virus, leishmaniasis and, obviously, the well-known malaria.
WHY did sailors wear flared pants?
The original invention of the wide leg pants has been attributed to the Dutch, but they were first made a compulsory part of a sailor's uniform in the USA in 1810.
Flared pants do not constrain movements, they are handy for climbing the ropes and masts. Also, these pants roll up quickly and easily so one cannot get them wet when cleaning the deck or jumping into the water from the dinghy.
Besides, a sailor's job always involves the risk of falling into the water. Thus, clothes should be quickly removed if necessary, so as not to interfere with the swim.
The original invention of the wide leg pants has been attributed to the Dutch, but they were first made a compulsory part of a sailor's uniform in the USA in 1810.
Flared pants do not constrain movements, they are handy for climbing the ropes and masts. Also, these pants roll up quickly and easily so one cannot get them wet when cleaning the deck or jumping into the water from the dinghy.
Besides, a sailor's job always involves the risk of falling into the water. Thus, clothes should be quickly removed if necessary, so as not to interfere with the swim.
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WHY are bacteria and microbes afraid of UV light?
Ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 10 and 400 nm. In fact, it is radiation which spectrum lies between the light visible to the human eye and X-rays.
Ultraviolet is capable of penetrating the DNA and RNA of microorganisms and destroying them, at least damaging them, significantly slowing down or preventing the reproduction of cells altogether.
For humans, exposure to high doses of ultraviolet light can cause dangerous damage to the eyes and skin.
Ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 10 and 400 nm. In fact, it is radiation which spectrum lies between the light visible to the human eye and X-rays.
Ultraviolet is capable of penetrating the DNA and RNA of microorganisms and destroying them, at least damaging them, significantly slowing down or preventing the reproduction of cells altogether.
For humans, exposure to high doses of ultraviolet light can cause dangerous damage to the eyes and skin.
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WHY are right-handed people outnumbered by left-handed ones?
Statistically we are aware that about 85% of the world's population is right-handed, up to 10% is left-handed, and an even smaller number are ambidextrous.
Actually, lateralization, i.e. preference to use the left or right limb (hand and foot) is explained by the peculiarities of brain structure and functioning.
The left hemisphere, which controls the right hand, is responsible to a greater extent for logical and sequential thinking, which in ancient times was the key to human survival. Those with a more developed left brain were more likely to pass natural selection.
Statistically we are aware that about 85% of the world's population is right-handed, up to 10% is left-handed, and an even smaller number are ambidextrous.
Actually, lateralization, i.e. preference to use the left or right limb (hand and foot) is explained by the peculiarities of brain structure and functioning.
The left hemisphere, which controls the right hand, is responsible to a greater extent for logical and sequential thinking, which in ancient times was the key to human survival. Those with a more developed left brain were more likely to pass natural selection.
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WHY are piggy banks commonly shaped as pigs?
In Western Europe, piggy banks are rooted in medieval England. Pottery in those days was made from clay, known as pygg, and its name was consonant with pig.
Piggy pots have also been found in Indonesia, but none of these could be connected with the English language! Not with English, but with the Indonesian language, yeah. After all, "piggy bank" is celengan and "boar" is celeng. Naturally, the same-rooted words were combined in one image of a piggy bank.
Yet the most beautiful is the version from China. According to it, the pig is a symbol of wealth and prosperity from the earliest times. Who else would you trust to save and accumulate money but a piggy bank in its shape?
In Western Europe, piggy banks are rooted in medieval England. Pottery in those days was made from clay, known as pygg, and its name was consonant with pig.
Piggy pots have also been found in Indonesia, but none of these could be connected with the English language! Not with English, but with the Indonesian language, yeah. After all, "piggy bank" is celengan and "boar" is celeng. Naturally, the same-rooted words were combined in one image of a piggy bank.
Yet the most beautiful is the version from China. According to it, the pig is a symbol of wealth and prosperity from the earliest times. Who else would you trust to save and accumulate money but a piggy bank in its shape?
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WHY do certain characters' eyes in some paintings follow you?
If the shadows, light and perspective in a painting do not change as the viewer moves, then when the eyes in a portrait look straight ahead, they seem to follow the observer as they move. It only works in the plane - since the picture is two-dimensional and you cannot bypass it and see the painted eyes from the side.
So we perceive the portrait as a front view with the pupils facing the observer. Curiously, if the artist shifts his gaze from the painting and depicts the eyes so that they look slightly away from the observer, this effect vanishes at once.
If the shadows, light and perspective in a painting do not change as the viewer moves, then when the eyes in a portrait look straight ahead, they seem to follow the observer as they move. It only works in the plane - since the picture is two-dimensional and you cannot bypass it and see the painted eyes from the side.
So we perceive the portrait as a front view with the pupils facing the observer. Curiously, if the artist shifts his gaze from the painting and depicts the eyes so that they look slightly away from the observer, this effect vanishes at once.
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WHY do camels spit?
Once in a while, a camel may have a food lump in its mouth that is excessively large. In such a case, the camel may spit without aiming at anyone, which is rare. Typically, the spitting is done deliberately, at a specific target, which is hit with amazing accuracy.
Spitting is also used for self-defense, protection of cubs. Camels actually have no obvious enemies in the natural environment, but cubs can be attacked by wolves.
Once in a while, a camel may have a food lump in its mouth that is excessively large. In such a case, the camel may spit without aiming at anyone, which is rare. Typically, the spitting is done deliberately, at a specific target, which is hit with amazing accuracy.
Spitting is also used for self-defense, protection of cubs. Camels actually have no obvious enemies in the natural environment, but cubs can be attacked by wolves.
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WHY doesn't the Earth's core freeze?
The core is the source of the magnetic field that created life.
It's actually cooling down, just slowly. From the Earth's core, colossal upward thermal flows of magma, the plumes, rise. At the surface of the mantle, they spread out to the sides, causing continents to drift, and when they get cold, they descend into the depths.
Yet the core also contains heating sources: the decay of long-lived radioactive elements and the friction between the core and the Earth's outer layers, which tides gradually slow down the rotation of the Earth.
According to approximate calculations, at least 1 billion years would pass before the core cools down completely and chemical and other reactions in it stop.
The core is the source of the magnetic field that created life.
It's actually cooling down, just slowly. From the Earth's core, colossal upward thermal flows of magma, the plumes, rise. At the surface of the mantle, they spread out to the sides, causing continents to drift, and when they get cold, they descend into the depths.
Yet the core also contains heating sources: the decay of long-lived radioactive elements and the friction between the core and the Earth's outer layers, which tides gradually slow down the rotation of the Earth.
According to approximate calculations, at least 1 billion years would pass before the core cools down completely and chemical and other reactions in it stop.
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