كتاب مفيد جداً في تسمين العجول. باللغة العربية

Small animal fluid therapy. In English

الجهاز التناسلي للبقرة : Cow reproductive system

تتماثل أغلب الحيوانات اللبونة في مكونات جهازها التناسلي الانثوي ويعد المبيض هو الجزء الاساسي لتلك المكونات، لأنه مصدر إنتاج البويضات والهرمونات المسيطرة على مجرى العملية التناسلية بالاشتراك مع هرمونات أخرى من خارج المبيض، يتألف الجهاز التناسلي الانثوي للبقرة من الاجزاء الأتية:
🔺 المبيض Ovary
🔺قناة المبيض Oviduct
🔺الرحم Uterus
🔺المهبل Vagina
🔺الفتحة التناسلية الخارجية Vulva

وفيما يلي توضيح لكل جزء من الاجزاء السابقة:

1- المبيض: Ovary

يكون شكله بيضوي يبلغ طوله من 3.5-5 سم وعرضه حوالي 2.5 سم ويبلغ وزنه 15-20 غم ويتكون من غدتين مزدوجتين تقع في التجويف البطني خلف الكليتين، تتكون كل غدة من غدتي المبيض من جزأين رئيسين هما:
أ – النخاع (Medulla): ويحتوي على أنجسة ضامة وشبكة من الالياف العصبية والأوعية الدموية.
ب . القشرة (Cortex): وتحتوي على الحويصلات المبيضية الجريبات والمسماة حويصلات كراف التي تتكون فيها البويضات والهرمونات الجنسية الانثوية وهي الاستروجين (Estrogen). والبروجسترون(Progesterone) الحويصلات ذات أحجام مختلفة وغالبا ما تكون بارزة عن سطح المبايض وعند انطلاق البيوضة ثم الحمل يتكون مكانها الجسم الاصفر والذي يبلغ طوله من 1- 1.5 سم. ويكون على شكل كتلة صفراء اللون ينمو خارج حويصله كراف ويتكون من خلايا كبيرة (Luteal cells) وهذه الخلايا تحتوي على حبيبات دهنية صفراء بعد انفجار الحويصلة.

2- قناة المبيض: Oviduct

عبارة عن زوج من القنوات الملتوية تتصل كل منها بمبيض من المبايض يبلغ طولها في الأبقار حوالي 20-25 سم وتمتد من المبيض الى قرن الرحم الذي يكون اتصالها به غير قوي لان نهايته غير مدببة وتكون بدايتها على شكل قمع كبير نسبيا وتسمى الفتحة المبيضية القمعية ووظيفتها التقاط البيوضة عند خروجها من الحويصلة لتدخل قناة البيض وفيها يحدث الاخصاب أولا بعدها تنتقل البيوضة المخصبة الى الرحم ليتم الانغراس ثم استكمال نمو الجنين.

3- الرحم: Uterus

يقع الرحم عادة داخل التجويف البطني للبقرة ويكون في الأبقار الوالدة اطول عدة مرات من الرحم في العجلات التي لم تلد بعد، لذلك يكون جسم الرحم في العجلة في بداية التجويف وفي الأبقار يمتد للأمام اكثر، يبدأ الرحم من نهاية قناة البيض (Oviduct) الى عنق الرحم (Cervix) ويبلغ طول قرن الرحم 35-40سم، اما جسم الرحم فطوله 3-4 سم ويكون نهاية قرن الرحم الطليق ملتوي على شكل لولبي يشبه قرون الكبش.
يؤدي الرحم دورا مهما في عملية حفظ الجنين حيث فيه تتكون المشيمة (Placenta) وفيه تفرز السوائل الرحمية لتغذية البويضة الملقحة لحين انغراسها في جدار الرحم، وفي نهاية مدة الحمل يساعد الرحم على دفع الجنين الى الخارج عن طريق انقباض عضلاته، ومن ثم خروجه خارج الجسم.

4- المهبل: Vagina

وهو الجزء الذي يقع بين عنق الرحم (Cervix) والفتحة التناسلية الخارجية (Vulva) يبلغ طوله حوالي 25-30 سم في الأبقار غير الحوامل، اما في الأبقار الحوامل فيكون اطول قليلا من ذلك، يقسم المهبل الى قسمين اولهما الدهليز Vestibule وثانيهما المهبل الخلفي Posterior يعد المهبل المستقبل للسائل المنوي عند التلقيح وكذلك مهيأ لخروج الجنين عند الولادة حيث يرتبط نهايته بالفتحة التناسلية الخارجية.

5- الفتحة التناسلية الخارجية:

وهي الجزء الأخير من الجهاز التناسلي ويكون مشتركا للبول والتناسل ويتألف من عضلتين سميكتين (شفتين) تسيطران على بداية الجهاز المشترك وتبلغ طول الفتحة حوالي 2.5 سم.

ملف pdf يحتوي معلومات مفيده جدا في تناسل الحيوانات خصوصاً للطلاب الي عدهم امتحان كومتي

طب باطني للكلاب والقطط على شكل حالات واسئلة. باللغة الإنكليزية

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland


The two sections of the pituitary gland produce a number of different hormones which act on different target glands or cells.

❎Anterior pituitary:

🔺 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

🔺 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

🔺 Luteinising hormone (LH)

🔺 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

🔺 Prolactin (PRL)

🔺 Growth hormone (GH)


❎Posterior pituitary

🔺Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
🔺Oxytocin

Table of pituitary hormones

"NSAIDs" non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.


Drugs in This Group

❎Aspirin

Aspirin is the common name for acetyl salicylic acid. This is hydrolysed to an active form, salicylate, which irreversibly binds COX by an acetylation reaction and has a high affinity for COX in platelets. Because of this affinity, the drug has an anti-thrombotic effect which is more pronounced at low doses where platelet production of TXA2 (aggregatory) is inhibited but that of PGI2 (disaggregatory) is not. At higher doses, PGI2 formation is also affected, reducing the dis-aggregatory influence it provides and therefore the anti-thrombotic effects of aspirin. Once COX is bound by salicylate, TXA2 production is inhibited for the life of that platelet, and so new platelets are required to raise body TXA2 levels again. At the low doses required for anti-thrombosis, aspirin has no analgesic or anti-inflammatory properties.

Aspirin is not used very commonly in veterinary medicine, and huge dose variations exist between species.
For example, the dose for a dog is 25mg/kg/8 hours, but in the cat is 25mg/kg/day. Half-life also differs between species, being only one hour in the pony but 37.6 hours in the cat.

Oxidisation is the main method of aspirin metabolisation, but some drug is also conjugated to glucuronide. Glucuronidation cannot be performed by the cat, accounting for the long half-life in this species.


❎Phenylbutazone

Phenylbutazone (colloquially known as "bute") has a more potent anti-inflammatory than analgesic action. It follows the standard NSAID mechanism of COX inhibition, and concentrates in inflammatory exudates. It is cheap and commonly used in veterinary practice.

Administration of phenylbutazone with food reduces the rate of absorption. Although the drug's bioavailability remains the same, it is absorbed further down the gastro-intestinal tract than normal and plasma levels rise more slowly. Rate of metabolism varies vastly between species, and in some species (for example, the dog) phenylbutzone displays zero-order kinetics.

Phenylbutazone has caused death by aplastic anaemia in man, and since safe milk and meat residue levels cannot be established, it is banned in food producing animals. Protein losing enteropathy has been seen in horses and ponies. The drug has a low safety margin and care must be taken in equids to use the lower end of the dose range. Top range doses would lead to accumulation and toxicity.

❎Carprofen

Carprofen (Rimadyl) is a poor COX inhibitor, yet a potent anti-inflammatory drug. It is generally well-tolerated and can be used as a peri-operative analgesic with a reduced risk of nephrotoxicity compared to other NSAIDs.

❎Ketoprofen

Ketoprofen has potent anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic actions. In addition to its effects on COX, ketoprofen may inhibit lipoxygenase and bradykinin to have a broader mechanism of action. The main side effect is gastro-intestinal erosion.

❎Cinchophen

This drug has a primarily anti-inflammatory effect, though is analgesic and anti-pyretic at higher doses (similar to aspirin). Cinchophen also has uricosuric activity. Side effects include hepatotoxitiy and gastric ulceration.

Cinchophen is the main component of prednoleucotropin (PLT) tablets used for the treatment of osteoarthritis in a dog. These tablest also contain a very low dose of prednisolone, a corticosteroid.

❎Flunixin

Flunixin is of limited use in small animal practice due to its toxicity; however, it is commonly used in farm and equine practice. It has potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects and is used for such conditions as pneumonia, mastitis and endotoxic shock. Preparations are available in combination with anti-microbials (e.g. Resflor - florfenicol plus flunixin).

❎Fenamates

Tolfenamic acid and meclofenamic acid are the fenamates used in veterinary medicine. In addition to the usual mechanism of action, they may provide some antagonism to the prostaglandin receptor.

❎Oxicams

Meloxicam (Metacam) is commonly used in dogs and cats, and is now licensed in cattle, pigs and horses. It may have cartilage sparing effects in osteoarthritis, but this has only been tested under laboratory conditions. Other NSAIDs appear to be detrimental to cartilage.

Bovine lungworm


❎Dictyocaulus viviparus is a bovine lungworm (a member of the Trichostrongyloidea). They are found in the trachea and larger bronchi and are responsible for parasitic bronchitis. There has been an increase in the incidence of husk in recent years; first season calves are particularly affected, although yearling and adult cattle may also succumb to the disease. Lungworm is responsible for reduced weight-gain and deaths in calves and yearlings and lowered milk-yield in dairy cows. A closely-related species is also responsible for one of the most important diseases of farmed deer. The parasite is of welfare importance if clinically affected animals are left untreated.

❎Hosts

Cattle, buffalo, deer and camels.

❎Identification

The adults are white thread-like worms, often less than 8cm in length.

❎Life Cycle

The adult worms are found in the trachea and the bronchi. The female lays embryonated eggs, which are later coughed up and swallowed. The eggs hatch during the passage through the intestinal system. First stage larvae are passed in the faeces of the host. Development into L2, and later L3, occurs within the faeces on the pasture.

A new host is infected by ingestion of infective larvae whilst grazing. These infective larvae are passed through the alimentary tract, where they penetrate the wall of the intestine. The larvae then migrate to the lungs, via the lymphatic system, or the blood circulation. These ascend the respiratory tree, where they mature into adult lungworms.

The prepatent period is 3.5 weeks.

❎Clinical Signs


Signs include coughing and tachypnoea (depending on the number of worms) and an increased respiratory rate. In calves it can cause weight loss and even death in severe cases. In adult cattle, infection will tend to cause reduced milk yields and mild respiratory signs.

The penetration phase lasts one week and occurs when the larvae migrate to lungs. There are no clinical signs.

Then the prepatent phase lasts 1 - 3 weeks and is the development and migration of larvae leading to bronchiolitis and then eosinophilic exudate, causing the air passage to be blocked, resulting in alveolar collapse (distal to blockage). This is when clinical signs such as tachypnoea and coughing being to arise.

The patent phase then lasts around 4 - 8 weeks and the mature worms produce eggs during this period. Signs of bronchitis are seen due to mature worms and parasitic pneumonia is seen due to aspiration of eggs and larvae causing cellular infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages and giant cells.

Finally, the postpatent phase, which lasts around 8 - 12 weeks is seen and here, the majority of worms are expelled. In 25% of cases clinical signs may reappear as a result of alveolar epithelialisation, which may occur together with interstitial emphysema and pulmonary oedema, or secondary bacterial infection.

Reinfection syndrome may occur if immune cattle are exposed to large numbers; only then will they show clinical signs.

❎Diagnosis

🔺Calves
Diagnosis is based on the seasonal incidence, previous grazing history and clinical signs. Definitive diagnosis can be gained by performing a Baerman technique on a faecal sample to identify larvae. Samples need to be taken from both healthy and sick cattle as carrier animals may be important in the epidemiology of disease, e.g. in an endemic area 30% yearlings and 5% cows harbour patent infections, as do vaccinated animals. NOTE: All lungworm-positive faecal samples are potentially significant.

Post mortem examination can also be diagnostic; recovery of worms from lungs by the “Inderbitzen” or lung perfusion technique. Worms are flushed out of lungs by pumping water through pulmonary arteries. Water and worms passed out of trachea collected over sieve. NOTE: Only 200-300 worms are required to cause clinical disease c.f. >40,000 Ostertagia. Upon post mortem, one may also see pulmonary oedema and emphysema, which is thought to be caused due to a hypersensitivity response to a massive invasion of lungworm larvae.

🔺 Adult Cattle

Diagnosis is again based on seasonal incidence, previous grazing history and clinical signs. Definitive diagnosis can be achieved by faecal examination using the Baerman technique to identiy larvae. Both healthy and sick cattle should be examined. Blood and Milk examination (ELISA) to look for antibodies can be used, but this has variable results (depending upon Ag used). Herd results are better than individual results in this case.
Grass examination for larvae around dung pats is useful. Response to anthelmintic treatment will provide a retrospective diagnosis.

❎Treatment

If the animal is clinically affected, treatment with anthelmintic such as ivermectin can be used.