Oldest Programming Languages Still in Use Today 🕰️

📜 Fortran (1957) – Still used in scientific computing
🤖 Lisp (1958) – Powering AI since the start
💼 COBOL (1959) – Running banks & ATMs
🖥 C (1972) – The godfather of modern languages
🗣 Prolog (1972) – Logic programming OG

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✅ Coding Portfolio Tips 🚀

A Coding portfolio is your proof of skill — it shows recruiters that you don’t just “know” concepts, but you can apply them to solve real problems. Here's how to build an impressive one:

🔹 What to Include in Your Portfolio

• Diverse Projects: Choose projects that showcase different programming languages, frameworks, and problem-solving skills.
• Real-World Applications: Focus on projects that address practical needs or simulate real-world scenarios.
• Clear Documentation: Include well-written README files explaining the project's purpose, how to run it, and any dependencies.
• Code Quality: Write clean, well-commented, and maintainable code.
• Testing: Include unit tests or integration tests to demonstrate the reliability of your code.

🔹 Where to Host Your Portfolio

• GitHub: The standard for code hosting, version control, and collaboration.
• Pin your best projects to the top of your profile.
• Organize your repositories with meaningful names and descriptions.
• Personal Website: Create a dedicated website to showcase your projects and skills.
• Include project descriptions, live demos (if applicable), and links to your GitHub repositories.
• Consider adding a blog to document your learning journey and share your coding insights.
• Other Platforms:
• CodePen/CodeSandbox: Great for front-end projects or showcasing individual components.
• HackerRank/LeetCode: Display your problem-solving abilities through your coding challenges.

🔹 Tips for Impact

• Contribute to open-source projects.
• Build projects that solve your own problems or address a niche need.
• Write blog posts about the challenges you faced and the solutions you implemented.
• Get feedback from other developers and iterate on your work.
• Showcase your passion for coding.

✅ Goal: When a recruiter opens your profile, they should instantly see your value as a practical and skilled coder.

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Data Science Interview Questions

1. What are the different subsets of SQL?

Data Definition Language (DDL) – It allows you to perform various operations on the database such as CREATE, ALTER, and DELETE objects.
Data Manipulation Language(DML) – It allows you to access and manipulate data. It helps you to insert, update, delete and retrieve data from the database.
Data Control Language(DCL) – It allows you to control access to the database. Example – Grant, Revoke access permissions.

2. List the different types of relationships in SQL.

There are different types of relations in the database:
One-to-One – This is a connection between two tables in which each record in one table corresponds to the maximum of one record in the other.
One-to-Many and Many-to-One – This is the most frequent connection, in which a record in one table is linked to several records in another.
Many-to-Many – This is used when defining a relationship that requires several instances on each sides.
Self-Referencing Relationships – When a table has to declare a connection with itself, this is the method to employ.

3. How to create empty tables with the same structure as another table?

To create empty tables:
Using the INTO operator to fetch the records of one table into a new table while setting a WHERE clause to false for all entries, it is possible to create empty tables with the same structure. As a result, SQL creates a new table with a duplicate structure to accept the fetched entries, but nothing is stored into the new table since the WHERE clause is active.

4. What is Normalization and what are the advantages of it?

Normalization in SQL is the process of organizing data to avoid duplication and redundancy. Some of the advantages are:
Better Database organization
More Tables with smaller rows
Efficient data access
Greater Flexibility for Queries
Quickly find the information
Easier to implement Security

🧠 Top 7 Core CS Subjects to Master for Tech Interviews (2025 Edition) 💡💻

✅ Data Structures & Algorithms 
Arrays, Trees, Graphs, HashMaps, Linked Lists, Heaps

✅ Operating Systems 
Processes, Threads, Scheduling, Deadlocks, Memory Management

✅ DBMS (Databases) 
Normalization, Transactions, SQL vs NoSQL, Indexing, Joins

✅ Computer Networks 
OSI Model, TCP/IP, DNS, HTTP/HTTPS, Sockets

✅ Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) 
Encapsulation, Inheritance, Polymorphism, SOLID Principles

✅ System Design (HLD/LLD) 
Load balancing, caching, database sharding, scalability

✅ Programming Languages 
Deep understanding of your primary language (C++, Java, Python, etc.)

🎯 These are non-negotiable for top tech roles & product-based companies.

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✅ Step-by-Step Guide to Create a Coding Portfolio 🚀

✅ 1️⃣ Choose Your Programming Languages & Technologies

• Focus on languages and frameworks relevant to your career goals (e.g., Python, JavaScript, Java, React, Node.js).
• Select technologies that showcase a variety of skills (e.g., front-end, back-end, databases, cloud platforms).

✅ 2️⃣ Plan Your Portfolio Structure

• Homepage: A brief introduction about you and your coding interests.
• About Me: Skills, experience, education, and a headshot.
• Projects: Showcase your best projects with detailed explanations.
• Blog (Optional): Share your coding knowledge and insights.
• Contact: Email, LinkedIn, GitHub, and other relevant links.

✅ 3️⃣ Build Your Portfolio Website or Platform

• Personal Website: Use HTML/CSS/JavaScript, or a framework like React or Vue.js, for full control.
• GitHub Pages: A simple way to host static websites directly from your GitHub repository.
• Platforms: Consider CodePen, CodeSandbox, or platforms like LinkedIn to showcase code snippets and projects.

✅ 4️⃣ Add 4-6 Strong Coding Projects

• Diverse Projects: Include projects that demonstrate different skills and technologies.
• Real-World Applications: Focus on projects that solve practical problems or simulate real-world scenarios.
• Project Ideas:
• Web applications
• Mobile apps
• Desktop applications
• Command-line tools
• Games
• Libraries or frameworks

For each project, include:

• Title and Description: Clearly explain the project's purpose and functionality.
• Technologies Used: List the programming languages, frameworks, and libraries used.
• Code Snippets: Include relevant code snippets to showcase your coding style.
• Live Demo (If Applicable): Provide a link to a live demo of the project.
• GitHub Repository Link: Share the link to the project's GitHub repository.
• Screenshots or GIFs: Use visuals to illustrate the project's functionality.

✅ 5️⃣ Write Clear and Concise Documentation

• Explain the project's architecture, algorithms, and data structures.
• Use code comments to clarify complex code logic.
• Provide instructions on how to run the project.

✅ 6️⃣ Deploy and Share Your Portfolio

• Host your website on platforms like Netlify or Vercel for easy deployment.
• Share your GitHub repository links and live demos on your portfolio website.
• Promote your portfolio on social media platforms like LinkedIn and Twitter.

✅ 7️⃣ Keep Improving and Updating

• Add new projects regularly to showcase your latest skills.
• Refactor and improve existing projects based on feedback.
• Stay up-to-date with the latest coding trends and technologies.

💡 Pro Tips

• Focus on creating visually appealing and user-friendly portfolio website.
• Highlight your problem-solving skills and coding proficiency.
• Showcase your ability to work collaboratively and communicate effectively.
• Include a downloadable resume and your contact information.

🎯 Goal: Your portfolio should demonstrate your coding skills, problem-solving abilities, and passion for software development.

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✅ How to Apply for Software Engineer Jobs (Step-by-Step Guide) 💻👨‍💻

🔹 1. Build a Strong Portfolio
• Showcase 3-5 projects demonstrating your skills and experience.
• Include projects like web apps, mobile apps, libraries, or command-line tools.
• Use diverse technologies to highlight versatility.

🔹 2. Optimize Your Resume
• Clearly list technical skills: languages, frameworks, tools, and databases.
• Quantify achievements: "Improved performance by 30%", "Reduced bugs by 15%"
• Include links to GitHub, personal website, and relevant profiles.

🔹 3. Develop Your Online Presence
• Create a professional LinkedIn profile with a relevant headline.
• Example: "Software Engineer | Full-Stack Developer | Python | JavaScript"
• Share your learning journey, projects, and insights on LinkedIn and other platforms.
• Contribute to open-source projects to gain experience and visibility.

🔹 4. Select Relevant Job Platforms
• General Job Boards: LinkedIn, Indeed, Glassdoor, Monster
• Tech-Focused Platforms: Stack Overflow Jobs, Hired, AngelList/Wellfound
• Company Career Pages: Target companies directly by visiting their career pages.
• Freelance Platforms: Upwork, Toptal (for gaining experience and building your profile)

🔹 5. Strategically Apply for Positions
• Target entry-level, junior, or internship roles initially.
• Tailor your resume and cover letter to each specific job.
• Maintain a spreadsheet to track applications and their status.

🔹 6. Master Technical Interview Preparation
• Data Structures and Algorithms: Arrays, linked lists, trees, graphs, sorting, searching.
• System Design: Scalability, databases, microservices, caching.
• Coding Practice: LeetCode, HackerRank, Codewars.
• Behavioral Questions: STAR method (Situation, Task, Action, Result).

💡 Bonus Tips
• Participate in coding challenges and hackathons to gain practical experience.
• Write technical blog posts to showcase your knowledge and communication skills.
• Network with other software engineers at meetups and conferences.

🧠 Remember: It's not just about knowing the code; it's about showcasing your problem-solving skills and ability to learn and adapt.

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✅ Top Coding Algorithms You MUST Know for Interviews 💼👨‍💻

🟢 1. Bubble Sort – Sorting Algorithm
👉 Repeatedly compares & swaps adjacent elements to sort the array.

*Python*

def bubble_sort(arr):
    for i in range(len(arr)):
        for j in range(len(arr)-i-1):
            if arr[j] > arr[j+1]:
                arr[j], arr[j+1] = arr[j+1], arr[j]

*C++*

void bubbleSort(int arr[], int n) {
  for(int i=0; i<n-1; i++)
    for(int j=0; j<n-i-1; j++)
      if(arr[j] > arr[j+1])
        swap(arr[j], arr[j+1]);
}

*Java*

void bubbleSort(int[] arr) {
  for(int i = 0; i < arr.length - 1; i++)
    for(int j = 0; j < arr.length - i - 1; j++)
      if(arr[j] > arr[j+1]) {
        int temp = arr[j]; arr[j] = arr[j+1]; arr[j+1] = temp;
      }
}

🟡 2. Binary Search – Searching Algorithm
👉 Efficiently searches a sorted array in O(log n) time.

*Python*

def binary_search(arr, target):
    low, high = 0, len(arr)-1
    while low <= high:
        mid = (low + high) // 2
        if arr[mid] == target: return mid
        elif arr[mid] < target: low = mid + 1
        else: high = mid - 1
    return -1

🟠 3. Recursion – Factorial Example
👉 Function calls itself to solve smaller subproblems.

*C++*

int factorial(int n) {
  if(n == 0) return 1;
  return n * factorial(n - 1);
}

🔵 4. Dynamic Programming – Fibonacci (Bottom-Up)
👉 Stores previous results to avoid repeated work.

*Python*

def fib(n):
    dp = [0, 1]
    for i in range(2, n+1):
        dp.append(dp[i-1] + dp[i-2])
    return dp[n]

🟣 5. Sliding Window – Max Sum Subarray of Size K
👉 Finds max sum in a subarray of fixed length in O(n) time.

*Java*

int maxSum(int[] arr, int k) {
  int sum = 0, max = 0;
  for(int i = 0; i < k; i++) sum += arr[i];
  max = sum;
  for(int i = k; i < arr.length; i++) {
    sum += arr[i] - arr[i - k];
    if(sum > max) max = sum;
  }
  return max;
}

🧠 6. BFS (Breadth-First Search) – Graph Traversal
👉 Explores all neighbors before going deeper.

*Python*

from collections import deque
def bfs(graph, start):
    visited = set([start])
    queue = deque([start])
    while queue:
        node = queue.popleft()
        print(node)
        for neighbor in graph[node]:
             if neighbor not in visited:
                visited.add(neighbor)
                queue.append(neighbor)

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Note: I've added

 around code snippets to format them correctly in Telegram.

C++ vs Python 👆

Lol 😂

✅ Statistics & Probability Cheatsheet 📚🧠

📌 Descriptive Statistics:
⦁  Mean = (Σx) / n
⦁  Median = Middle value
⦁  Mode = Most frequent value
⦁  Variance (σ²) = Σ(x - μ)² / n
⦁  Std Dev (σ) = √Variance
⦁  Range = Max - Min
⦁  IQR = Q3 - Q1

📌 Probability Basics:
⦁  P(A) = Outcomes A / Total Outcomes
⦁  P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B) (if independent)
⦁  P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)
⦁  Conditional: P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)
⦁  Bayes’ Theorem: P(A|B) = [P(B|A) × P(A)] / P(B)

📌 Common Distributions:
⦁  Binomial (fixed trials)
⦁  Normal (bell curve)
⦁  Poisson (rare events over time)
⦁  Uniform (equal probability)

📌 Inferential Stats:
⦁  Z-score = (x - μ) / σ
⦁  Central Limit Theorem: sampling dist ≈ Normal
⦁  Confidence Interval: CI = x‌ ± z*(σ/√n)

📌 Hypothesis Testing:
⦁  H₀ = No effect; H₁ = Effect present
⦁  p-value < α → Reject H₀
⦁  Tests: t-test (small samples), z-test (known σ), chi-square (categorical data)

📌 Correlation:
⦁  Pearson: linear relation (–1 to 1)
⦁  Spearman: rank-based correlation

🧪 Tools to Practice: 
Python packages: scipy.stats, statsmodels, pandas 
Visualization: seaborn, matplotlib

💡 Quick tip: Use these formulas to crush interviews and build solid ML foundations!

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SQL interview questions with answers 😄👇

1. Question: What is SQL?

Answer: SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language designed for managing and manipulating relational databases. It is used to query, insert, update, and delete data in databases.

2. Question: Differentiate between SQL and MySQL.

Answer: SQL is a language for managing relational databases, while MySQL is an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS) that uses SQL as its language.

3. Question: Explain the difference between INNER JOIN and LEFT JOIN.

Answer: INNER JOIN returns rows when there is a match in both tables, while LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table and the matched rows from the right table, filling in with NULLs for non-matching rows.

4. Question: How do you remove duplicate records from a table?

Answer: Use the DISTINCT keyword in a SELECT statement to retrieve unique records. For example: SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2 FROM table;

5. Question: What is a subquery in SQL?

Answer: A subquery is a query nested inside another query. It can be used to retrieve data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.

6. Question: Explain the purpose of the GROUP BY clause.

Answer: The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows that have the same values in specified columns into summary rows, like when using aggregate functions such as COUNT, SUM, AVG, etc.

7. Question: How can you add a new record to a table?

Answer: Use the INSERT INTO statement. For example: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);

8. Question: What is the purpose of the HAVING clause?

Answer: The HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to filter the results of aggregate functions based on a specified condition.

9. Question: Explain the concept of normalization in databases.

Answer: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. It involves breaking down tables into smaller, related tables.

10. Question: How do you update data in a table in SQL?

Answer: Use the UPDATE statement to modify existing records in a table. For example: UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1 WHERE condition;

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✅ Complete Roadmap to Crack Coding Interviews

📂 1. Master Programming Fundamentals
– Understand syntax and basic concepts in your chosen language.

📂 2. Learn Data Structures
– Arrays, Linked Lists, Stacks, Queues, Trees, Graphs, Hash Tables.

📂 3. Understand Algorithms
– Sorting, Searching, Recursion, Dynamic Programming, Greedy, Backtracking.

📂 4. Practice Problem Solving
– Use platforms like LeetCode, HackerRank, Codeforces to solve diverse problems.

📂 5. Learn System Design Basics
– Understand scalability, databases, caching, load balancing for senior roles.

📂 6. Mock Interviews & Communication
– Practice explaining your approach clearly; simulate real interview scenarios.

📂 7. Review Previous Interview Questions
– Study questions asked by top companies to get familiar with patterns.

📂 8. Optimize Code & Understand Complexity
– Focus on time & space complexity, write clean, efficient code.

📂 9. Behavioral Preparation
– Prepare STAR stories for common HR questions about teamwork, challenges, leadership.

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System Design Interview Tips
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1. Implement WebRTC to facilitate direct video calls.
2. Use database indexing to make database queries faster.
3. Apply consistent hashing to manage server loads efficiently.
4. Implement read-through caching to optimize read operations.
5. Implement rate limiters to control traffic flow and manage load.
6. Use inverted indexes for efficient text searches in large databases.
7. Choose NoSQL databases for managing unstructured data effectively.
8. Utilize WebSockets to enable real-time peer-to-peer communication.
9. Use checksum algorithms to ensure data integrity across different systems.
10. Deploy Content Delivery Networks (CDN) to speed up global content delivery.
11. Implement RDBMS to ensure transaction integrity and support ACID properties.
12. Set up disaster recovery data centers to mitigate risks of single points of failure.
13. Prefer horizontal scaling for NoSQL and use sharding for RDBMS to scale databases.
14. Incorporate load balancers to enhance system availability and manage performance.
15. Adopt eventual consistency to balance availability with consistency where necessary.
16. Use CDNs, load balancers, and caching to reduce response times and achieve low latency.
17. Add write-through caching with a master-slave architecture to build fault-tolerant systems.
18. Use asynchronous processing and message queues like Kafka for handling heavy write loads.
19. Use Least Recently Used (LRU) caching or explore other suitable cache eviction policies based on specific needs.

Here's a 30-day roadmap to learn C++ up to an intermediate level, along with project ideas:

Week 1: C++ Basics
*Day 1-2:*
- Day 1: Install a C++ compiler (e.g., Visual Studio, Code::Blocks, or g++) and write your first "Hello, World!" program.
- Day 2: Understand C++ syntax, data types, and variables.

*Day 3-4:*
- Day 3: Learn about basic input and output operations in C++ using cin and cout.
- Day 4: Study operators and perform arithmetic and logical operations.

*Day 5-7:*
- Day 5: Explore control flow with if-else statements and loops (for, while, do-while).
- Day 6: Understand switch statements and how to use them for menu-driven programs.
- Day 7: Practice writing small programs involving conditions and loops.

Week 2: Functions and Object-Oriented Programming
*Day 8-9:*
- Day 8: Learn about functions (methods) in C++ and how to define your own functions.
- Day 9: Study function parameters, return types, and function overloading.

*Day 10-12:*
- Day 10: Understand the basics of object-oriented programming (OOP) in C++, including classes and objects.
- Day 11: Dive into constructors, destructors, and operator overloading.
- Day 12: Explore encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.

*Day 13-14:*
- Day 13: Study C++ namespaces and access specifiers (public, private, protected).
- Day 14: Practice creating classes and objects for real-world applications.

Week 3: Data Structures and Standard Template Library (STL)
*Day 15-17:*
- Day 15: Dive into C++ arrays and understand their usage.
- Day 16: Explore the Standard Template Library (STL) and containers like vectors and lists.
- Day 17: Learn about iterating through containers using iterators.

*Day 18-19:*
- Day 18: Study other STL components like maps, sets, and queues.
- Day 19: Understand when and how to use different STL containers in C++.

*Day 20-21:*
- Day 20: Explore exception handling in C++ and how to handle runtime errors.
- Day 21: Practice working with try-catch blocks and handling exceptions effectively.

Week 4: Intermediate Topics and Projects
*Day 22-23:*
- Day 22: Learn about file handling in C++, including reading and writing files.
- Day 23: Create a small project that involves file operations, like a text-based note-taking application.

*Day 24-26:*
- Day 24: Study C++ pointers, references, and dynamic memory allocation.
- Day 25: Explore more advanced C++ topics like multithreading or creating a simple game using libraries like SDL or SFML.
- Day 26: Work on a project that involves pointers, references, or multithreading.

*Day 27-28:*
- Day 27: Explore more advanced C++ libraries and frameworks that interest you (e.g., Boost or Qt).
- Day 28: Work on a more complex project that combines your knowledge from the past weeks. For example, create a small database application using SQLite and C++.

*Day 29-30:*
- Day 29: Review and revisit any topics you found challenging.
- Day 30: Continue building projects and exploring areas of C++ that interest you.

Remember to practice coding daily, and don't hesitate to explore additional resources, online tutorials, and forums to enhance your C++ skills. Good luck with your C++ learning journey!

ENJOY LEARNING 👍👍

The brain is not wired to multitask.

Quit trying to win a prize for being busy and doing 2 or 3 things at once.

Dedicate yourself to each project properly, complete it, and then move on to the next

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Web Development Project Ideas

Beginner-Level Projects

(Focus: HTML, CSS, basic JavaScript)

1. Calculator

2. Quiz App

3. Rock Paper Scissors

4. Note App

5. Stopwatch App

6. QR Code Reader

7. Weather App

8. Landing Page

9. Password Generator

10. Tic Tac Toe Game

11. Drawing App

12. Meme Generator

13. To-Do List App

14. Typing Speed Test

15. Random User API


Intermediate-Level Projects

(Focus: JavaScript, basic backend, APIs, local storage, UI/UX)

1. Link Shortener Website

2. Portfolio Website

3. Food Order Website

4. Movie App

5. Chat App

6. Twitter Clone

7. Survey App

8. E-Book Site

9. File Sharing App

10. Parallax Website

11. Tracker App

12. Memory App

13. Giphy Clone

14. Chess Game

15. Music Player


Advanced-Level Projects

(Focus: Full Stack, authentication, real-time, complex logic, deployment)

1. Ecommerce Website

2. Instagram Clone

3. Whatsapp Clone

4. Netflix Clone

5. Job Search App

6. Pinterest Clone

7. Dating App

8. Social Media Dashboard

9. User Activity Tracker

10. Stock-Trading App

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