🖍️ASIA PACIFIC AND INDO PACIFIC
♦️The term Asia Pacific encompasses Oceania, North -East -Asia and South-East -Asia.
♦️Asia-Pacific is not a security term but an economic concept used to describe the emerging market economies of South-East and East-Asia.
♦️On the other hand, Indo -Pacific is an evolving concept capturing the region from East-Africa to Western Pacific and is strategic-cum-economic conception with special focus on sea lanes of communication.
♦️The term Asia Pacific encompasses Oceania, North -East -Asia and South-East -Asia.
♦️Asia-Pacific is not a security term but an economic concept used to describe the emerging market economies of South-East and East-Asia.
♦️On the other hand, Indo -Pacific is an evolving concept capturing the region from East-Africa to Western Pacific and is strategic-cum-economic conception with special focus on sea lanes of communication.
🖍️THE 123 AGREEMENT :
♦️It refers to the section 123 of the US Atomic Energy Act, 1954 under which the US undertakes nuclear commerce with various countries.
♦️The US used this section to enter into agreements with various countries pertaining to nuclear cooperation. In 1963, India and the US had signed the 123 agreement for Tarapur Atomic Power Station.
♦️The US, after passing the Hyde Act in 2006, signed a 123 agreement with India in July 2007, thereby making an exception by allowing the US to permit nuclear commerce with India despite India being a non-signatory to the NPT.
♦️After the NSG specific waiver (explained in detail in the chapter of India-US relationship in the later part of the book), the 123 agreement was approved by both the houses of the US congress,thereby enabling the ‘US-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-Proliferation Enhancement Act.’
♦️It refers to the section 123 of the US Atomic Energy Act, 1954 under which the US undertakes nuclear commerce with various countries.
♦️The US used this section to enter into agreements with various countries pertaining to nuclear cooperation. In 1963, India and the US had signed the 123 agreement for Tarapur Atomic Power Station.
♦️The US, after passing the Hyde Act in 2006, signed a 123 agreement with India in July 2007, thereby making an exception by allowing the US to permit nuclear commerce with India despite India being a non-signatory to the NPT.
♦️After the NSG specific waiver (explained in detail in the chapter of India-US relationship in the later part of the book), the 123 agreement was approved by both the houses of the US congress,thereby enabling the ‘US-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-Proliferation Enhancement Act.’
🖍️ADDITIONAL PROTOCOL
♦️Additional protocols are basically safeguard agreements. After it was revealed that Iraq had violated the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, a need was felt to have extra safeguards.
♦️Under the old IAEA safeguards, all NPT signatories would specify their nuclear sites and IAEA would carry out inspections in the specified sites.
♦️Thus, IAEA, under the old safeguards, could only carry out inspection for unauthorised activities only at designated or specified sites declared by a country.
♦️This basically left an option open for states to carry out covert nuclear programmes
♦️Additional protocols are basically safeguard agreements. After it was revealed that Iraq had violated the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, a need was felt to have extra safeguards.
♦️Under the old IAEA safeguards, all NPT signatories would specify their nuclear sites and IAEA would carry out inspections in the specified sites.
♦️Thus, IAEA, under the old safeguards, could only carry out inspection for unauthorised activities only at designated or specified sites declared by a country.
♦️This basically left an option open for states to carry out covert nuclear programmes
🖍️ ATOMIC ENERGY ACT , 1962 :
♦️It was in 1948 that India passed its first atomic legislation to establish a framework to manage the Indian nuclear sector.
♦️The Atomic Energy Act 1948, modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act, established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as the main regulatory body.
♦️In 1962, the Atomic Energy Act 1948 was superseded with a new Atomic Energy Act of 1962. Both the legislations have only centralised the Indian State Control over nuclear related activities.
♦️It was in 1948 that India passed its first atomic legislation to establish a framework to manage the Indian nuclear sector.
♦️The Atomic Energy Act 1948, modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act, established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as the main regulatory body.
♦️In 1962, the Atomic Energy Act 1948 was superseded with a new Atomic Energy Act of 1962. Both the legislations have only centralised the Indian State Control over nuclear related activities.
🖍️ATOMS FOR PEACE:
♦️It was a programme which had its origin in the speech of US President Dwight Eisenhower at the UN General Assembly in 1953.
♦️In the speech, Eisenhower not only highlighted the dangers of nuclear weapons but also proposed peaceful use of nuclear technology.
♦️During the Cold War, the US began to use the programme to win allies in the global order. The US declassified nuclear documents and began to transfer nuclear technology to other states for peaceful use.
♦️India, Pakistan and Iran took advantage of the declassified knowledge to build up peaceful nuclear programmes.
♦️It was a programme which had its origin in the speech of US President Dwight Eisenhower at the UN General Assembly in 1953.
♦️In the speech, Eisenhower not only highlighted the dangers of nuclear weapons but also proposed peaceful use of nuclear technology.
♦️During the Cold War, the US began to use the programme to win allies in the global order. The US declassified nuclear documents and began to transfer nuclear technology to other states for peaceful use.
♦️India, Pakistan and Iran took advantage of the declassified knowledge to build up peaceful nuclear programmes.
🖍️CIVIL NUCLEAR LIABILITY ACT :
♦️The Indian Parliament, in August 2010, passed the Civilian Liability for Nuclear Damages Act (CLNDA).
♦️The legislation is important because India,after the signing of the Indo-US nuclear deal, would have to buy nuclear technologies from various countries.
♦️The law manages the liabilities of suppliers. Now, the Indian version of the CLNDA is perceived by many stakeholders as unworkable due to significant ambiguities in the legislation.
♦️For example, there is ambiguity about calculation of potential liability of a supplier.
♦️The Indian Parliament, in August 2010, passed the Civilian Liability for Nuclear Damages Act (CLNDA).
♦️The legislation is important because India,after the signing of the Indo-US nuclear deal, would have to buy nuclear technologies from various countries.
♦️The law manages the liabilities of suppliers. Now, the Indian version of the CLNDA is perceived by many stakeholders as unworkable due to significant ambiguities in the legislation.
♦️For example, there is ambiguity about calculation of potential liability of a supplier.
🖍️COMPREHENSIVE TEST BAN TREATY :
♦️ The first ever version of CTBT was proposed by Nehru in 1954 to ban atmospheric nuclear testing.
♦️It was later in 1993 that the Conference on Disarmament began to negotiate a CTBT. A text of the CTBT was finally prepared in 1996.
♦️The treaty decided to ban all forms of nuclear testing worldwide. The treaty till date has not come into force.
♦️As we shall see later in the chapter detailing India’s Nuclear Policy, India due to various reasons, has refused to sign the treaty. As India refused to sign the treaty, the treaty itself could not be enforced as it was based on consensus of all parties in the Conference on Disarmament (CD).
♦️ The first ever version of CTBT was proposed by Nehru in 1954 to ban atmospheric nuclear testing.
♦️It was later in 1993 that the Conference on Disarmament began to negotiate a CTBT. A text of the CTBT was finally prepared in 1996.
♦️The treaty decided to ban all forms of nuclear testing worldwide. The treaty till date has not come into force.
♦️As we shall see later in the chapter detailing India’s Nuclear Policy, India due to various reasons, has refused to sign the treaty. As India refused to sign the treaty, the treaty itself could not be enforced as it was based on consensus of all parties in the Conference on Disarmament (CD).
📍HOW DID THE STATE EVOLVE?
💡The ‘State’ is a creation of man and not a creation of mother earth or nature, which makes it a man-made ‘construct’. Man was initially a hunter-gatherer. He was leading a nomadic life.
💡Over a period of time, as man developed techniques of agriculture and learned domestication of animals, he decided to do away with his nomadic life in favour of a settled life.
💡As he settled in an area, the population in that patch of land began to grow.
💡The ‘State’ is a creation of man and not a creation of mother earth or nature, which makes it a man-made ‘construct’. Man was initially a hunter-gatherer. He was leading a nomadic life.
💡Over a period of time, as man developed techniques of agriculture and learned domestication of animals, he decided to do away with his nomadic life in favour of a settled life.
💡As he settled in an area, the population in that patch of land began to grow.
🖍️FISSILE MATERIAL CUT OFF TREATY ( FMCT )
♦️FMCT is a treaty being proposed to prohibit production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium.
♦️Regarding the scope of verification procedure, there is unanimity that the procedure should be strong, effective and also politically acceptable.
♦️Many countries have advocated that the procedure should not be the same as prescribed under NPT. Some sections in the Indian establishment are of the view that FMCT should have mechanisms whereby all states comply with all obligations.
♦️India’s ambassador at the CD has reiterated that India would only favour a treaty if it intends to ban future production of fissile material only.
♦️FMCT is a treaty being proposed to prohibit production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium.
♦️Regarding the scope of verification procedure, there is unanimity that the procedure should be strong, effective and also politically acceptable.
♦️Many countries have advocated that the procedure should not be the same as prescribed under NPT. Some sections in the Indian establishment are of the view that FMCT should have mechanisms whereby all states comply with all obligations.
♦️India’s ambassador at the CD has reiterated that India would only favour a treaty if it intends to ban future production of fissile material only.
🖍️MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL REGIME ( MTCR)
♦️ To prevent the proliferation of unmanned delivery vehicles for nuclear weapons, an informal agreement has been established called as MTCR in 1987 by the US, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and Japan.
♦️As per the MTCR, it places a ban on the transfer of such missiles that can carry more than 500 kilogrammes or have a range beyond 300 kilometres.
♦️ In 1992, the MTCR expanded its mandate to add unmanned aerial vehicles.
♦️ To prevent the proliferation of unmanned delivery vehicles for nuclear weapons, an informal agreement has been established called as MTCR in 1987 by the US, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and Japan.
♦️As per the MTCR, it places a ban on the transfer of such missiles that can carry more than 500 kilogrammes or have a range beyond 300 kilometres.
♦️ In 1992, the MTCR expanded its mandate to add unmanned aerial vehicles.
✏️ DIFFERENT TRACKS OF DIPLOMACY
♦️ The word tracks in this context means channels used by international state order to undertake negotiations.
♦️ Track–I: This means official diplomacy where heads of the states and diplomats and other government officials interact and negotiate to resolve issues.
♦️ Track–II: This means use of non-official actors like NGOs, civil societies, business houses, media persons and even conflict resolution specialists negotiate to resolve issues.
♦️ Multi-track: Multi-track diplomacy is a term coined by Dr Louis Diamond who has identified nine different tracks of diplomacy. The word track is mentioned as (T) in the below diagram.
♦️ The word tracks in this context means channels used by international state order to undertake negotiations.
♦️ Track–I: This means official diplomacy where heads of the states and diplomats and other government officials interact and negotiate to resolve issues.
♦️ Track–II: This means use of non-official actors like NGOs, civil societies, business houses, media persons and even conflict resolution specialists negotiate to resolve issues.
♦️ Multi-track: Multi-track diplomacy is a term coined by Dr Louis Diamond who has identified nine different tracks of diplomacy. The word track is mentioned as (T) in the below diagram.
✏️THREE WORLD THEORY
♦️The First World refers to the club of rich nations and this term came into use during the War to signify the nations of the West led by the capitalist US.
♦️The Second World during the Cold War signified states economically and militarily stronger than the Third World and the countries led by USSR had this tag.
♦️A stereotypical term, Third World, was used to signify states which were decolonised after the World War II and were less industrialised and relatively poor states.
♦️Though the Third World
countries were mostly non-aligned countries, the tag was also associated with the communist state of Cuba.
♦️The First World refers to the club of rich nations and this term came into use during the War to signify the nations of the West led by the capitalist US.
♦️The Second World during the Cold War signified states economically and militarily stronger than the Third World and the countries led by USSR had this tag.
♦️A stereotypical term, Third World, was used to signify states which were decolonised after the World War II and were less industrialised and relatively poor states.
♦️Though the Third World
countries were mostly non-aligned countries, the tag was also associated with the communist state of Cuba.
✏️PING-PONG DIPLOMACY
🔶 In the initial years of the Cold War, the US perceived China as a threat because of the Chinese propensity to lean towards the Soviet. In Early 1970s, the US and China began to exchange table tennis players.
🔶These table tennis matches paved a way for the two to open up communication channels which ultimately culminated in Nixon’s visit to China.
🔶The ping pong refers to the table tennis opening up diplomatic channels of communication.
🔶 In the initial years of the Cold War, the US perceived China as a threat because of the Chinese propensity to lean towards the Soviet. In Early 1970s, the US and China began to exchange table tennis players.
🔶These table tennis matches paved a way for the two to open up communication channels which ultimately culminated in Nixon’s visit to China.
🔶The ping pong refers to the table tennis opening up diplomatic channels of communication.
✏️INDIA AND REALISMS IN KAUTILYA'S ARTHASHASHTRA
🔶The ancient Indian period saw numerous religious norms exercised within the purview of international relations. There were elaborate rituals on diplomacy.
🔶The birth of the idea of diplomatic envoys goes back to the times of the Rig Veda; however, the existence of diplomatic missions in reality emerged much later.
🔶The conduct of the state in war and at times of diplomacy emerged during the times of the scholar Kautilya.
🔶 His Arthashastra specially talks about diplomacy. It is only in Arthashastra that we get an in-depth idea of ancient Indian diplomacy.
🔶The ancient Indian period saw numerous religious norms exercised within the purview of international relations. There were elaborate rituals on diplomacy.
🔶The birth of the idea of diplomatic envoys goes back to the times of the Rig Veda; however, the existence of diplomatic missions in reality emerged much later.
🔶The conduct of the state in war and at times of diplomacy emerged during the times of the scholar Kautilya.
🔶 His Arthashastra specially talks about diplomacy. It is only in Arthashastra that we get an in-depth idea of ancient Indian diplomacy.
✏️FACTORS SHAPING INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
🔶The foreign policy of any country as well as its success or failure is determined by many factors. To name a few:
🔶 HISTORY: Political Tradition and philosophical basis as in case of India peaceful coexistence as well as non aggression are attributed to its history and culture and political tradition.
🔶 GEOGRAPHY: location and resources- Geo-politics and Geo-strategy: Many rivers in India are transboundary e.g Ganges, Brahmaputra, Teesta. Himalaya and the Indian Ocean are crucial for India’s security.
🔶 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: the development needs and stage of a country contribute to its foreign policy choices and both in terms of means and ends.
🔶 DOMESTIC MILIEU: Institutions, political atmosphere and consensus on National Interest, needs, ambitions and capabilities, Leadership, bureaucracy.
🔶 INTERNATIONAL MILIEU: War, peace and stability e.g. a peaceful external environment is conducive for economic growth and development.
🔶The foreign policy of any country as well as its success or failure is determined by many factors. To name a few:
🔶 HISTORY: Political Tradition and philosophical basis as in case of India peaceful coexistence as well as non aggression are attributed to its history and culture and political tradition.
🔶 GEOGRAPHY: location and resources- Geo-politics and Geo-strategy: Many rivers in India are transboundary e.g Ganges, Brahmaputra, Teesta. Himalaya and the Indian Ocean are crucial for India’s security.
🔶 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: the development needs and stage of a country contribute to its foreign policy choices and both in terms of means and ends.
🔶 DOMESTIC MILIEU: Institutions, political atmosphere and consensus on National Interest, needs, ambitions and capabilities, Leadership, bureaucracy.
🔶 INTERNATIONAL MILIEU: War, peace and stability e.g. a peaceful external environment is conducive for economic growth and development.
✏️EVOLUTION OF INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
📍1947-1962: INTERNATIONALIST, IDEALIST INDIA
🔶Independent India’s foreign policy was the result of multiple factors such as the legacy of national movement against the British rule, post-Second World War developments, domestic
needs and personalities such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
🔶Even the Indian constitution included a provision, under article 51, for promotion of international peace and security, wherein the state shall Endeavour to:
🔶(a) Promote international peace and security;
🔶(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
🔶(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another; and
🔶(d) encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
📍1947-1962: INTERNATIONALIST, IDEALIST INDIA
🔶Independent India’s foreign policy was the result of multiple factors such as the legacy of national movement against the British rule, post-Second World War developments, domestic
needs and personalities such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
🔶Even the Indian constitution included a provision, under article 51, for promotion of international peace and security, wherein the state shall Endeavour to:
🔶(a) Promote international peace and security;
🔶(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
🔶(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another; and
🔶(d) encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
✏️ NON - ALIGNED INDIA
🔶The formative influence of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru is the feature of initial years of foreign policy of India which left a long lasting impact and polarised opinions for years to come.
🔶His vision included special status of India given its history, size and potential. It was a foreign policy predicated on internationalism, Afro-Asian Solidarity, anti colonialism and non alignment in the era of cold war power politics dominated by the two superpowers i.e. the USA and the USSR.
🔶Even before India became Independent the Asian relations Conference was held in New Delhi from 23 March to 2 April 1947. Mr. Nehru observed “we stand at the end of an era and on the threshold of a new period of history... Asia, after a long period of quiescence, has suddenly become important again in world affairs”.
🔶The formative influence of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru is the feature of initial years of foreign policy of India which left a long lasting impact and polarised opinions for years to come.
🔶His vision included special status of India given its history, size and potential. It was a foreign policy predicated on internationalism, Afro-Asian Solidarity, anti colonialism and non alignment in the era of cold war power politics dominated by the two superpowers i.e. the USA and the USSR.
🔶Even before India became Independent the Asian relations Conference was held in New Delhi from 23 March to 2 April 1947. Mr. Nehru observed “we stand at the end of an era and on the threshold of a new period of history... Asia, after a long period of quiescence, has suddenly become important again in world affairs”.
✏️PANCHASEEL AGREEMENT
🔶In this period the approach towards foreign relations was further underlined by the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence”, known as the Panchsheel Treaty between China and India in 1954.
🔶They were enunciated in the preamble to the "Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India", which was signed at Peking on 29 April 1954.
This agreement stated the five principles as:
🔶1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
🔶2. Mutual non-aggression.
🔶3. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
🔶4. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.
🔶5. Peaceful co-existence.
🔶In this period the approach towards foreign relations was further underlined by the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence”, known as the Panchsheel Treaty between China and India in 1954.
🔶They were enunciated in the preamble to the "Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India", which was signed at Peking on 29 April 1954.
This agreement stated the five principles as:
🔶1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
🔶2. Mutual non-aggression.
🔶3. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
🔶4. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.
🔶5. Peaceful co-existence.
✏️SETBACK WITH CHINA : 1962
🔶One of the key elements of a foreign policy based on the idea of nonalignment was the limitation of high defence expenditures. Such a policy weakened the hard power capabilities of India.
🔶 It was tested most acutely in its relations with People’s Republic of China (PRC). India gave refuge to the Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama in 1959 and negotiations with the PRC reached a dead end in 1960.
🔶Consequently, India adopted, in the words of Sumit Ganguly, a “strategy of compellence designed to restore what it deemed to be the territorial status quo along the disputed Himalayan border”.
🔶It involved sending in lightly armed, poorly equipped and ill-prepared troops to high altitudes without adequate supply lines. This policy, however, was proved to be ill conceived.
🔶One of the key elements of a foreign policy based on the idea of nonalignment was the limitation of high defence expenditures. Such a policy weakened the hard power capabilities of India.
🔶 It was tested most acutely in its relations with People’s Republic of China (PRC). India gave refuge to the Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama in 1959 and negotiations with the PRC reached a dead end in 1960.
🔶Consequently, India adopted, in the words of Sumit Ganguly, a “strategy of compellence designed to restore what it deemed to be the territorial status quo along the disputed Himalayan border”.
🔶It involved sending in lightly armed, poorly equipped and ill-prepared troops to high altitudes without adequate supply lines. This policy, however, was proved to be ill conceived.
✏️THE COLOMBO CONFERENCE AND LIMITS OF NON- ALIGNED MOVEMENT
🔶Six of the non-aligned nations — Egypt, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Ghana and Indonesia,selected on the basis that they were all acceptable to India and China - met in Colombo on 10 December 1962.
🔶The proposals that emerged from the Colombo Conference stipulated a Chinese withdrawal of 20 km from the ceasefire line observed by China without any reciprocal withdrawal on India’s behalf.
🔶Nevertheless,India accepted the proposals while China accepted them in principle as the basis to start negotiations. Eventually the initiative withered away.
🔶Thus, 1962 war with China marked an end to a phase in India’s foreign policy marked by idealism with initial success and multiple legacies that India had to contend with in the future.
🔶Six of the non-aligned nations — Egypt, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Ghana and Indonesia,selected on the basis that they were all acceptable to India and China - met in Colombo on 10 December 1962.
🔶The proposals that emerged from the Colombo Conference stipulated a Chinese withdrawal of 20 km from the ceasefire line observed by China without any reciprocal withdrawal on India’s behalf.
🔶Nevertheless,India accepted the proposals while China accepted them in principle as the basis to start negotiations. Eventually the initiative withered away.
🔶Thus, 1962 war with China marked an end to a phase in India’s foreign policy marked by idealism with initial success and multiple legacies that India had to contend with in the future.