📌FOREIGN AID :
🔸It is a tool of economic diplomacy where the donor state may use monetary instrument to achieve certain policy goals within the recipient state.
🔸The most important factor in this scenario is the capability that the donor state needs to possess to assert economic influence on the recipient state.
🔸The capabilities are often measured as surplus national resource. At times, foreign aid could be used as a power instrument when it is used by a state actor to reward a behaviour of another state after removal of sanctions.
🔸It is a tool of economic diplomacy where the donor state may use monetary instrument to achieve certain policy goals within the recipient state.
🔸The most important factor in this scenario is the capability that the donor state needs to possess to assert economic influence on the recipient state.
🔸The capabilities are often measured as surplus national resource. At times, foreign aid could be used as a power instrument when it is used by a state actor to reward a behaviour of another state after removal of sanctions.
📌FREE TRADE ( RELATED TO LAISSEZ-FAIRE )
🔸 It is a form of trading system which involves two actors where the trade of goods happens between the two without any restrictions. It indicates the abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market.
🔸Any form of free trade promotes competition and Efficiency and therefore is beneficial from an economic point of view.
🔸Free trade not only benefits a trader but also the consumers because traders through free trade can access foreign markets while the consumers can get access to imported goods.
🔸 It is a form of trading system which involves two actors where the trade of goods happens between the two without any restrictions. It indicates the abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market.
🔸Any form of free trade promotes competition and Efficiency and therefore is beneficial from an economic point of view.
🔸Free trade not only benefits a trader but also the consumers because traders through free trade can access foreign markets while the consumers can get access to imported goods.
📌 GENOCIDE :
🔸 Genocide means the systematic extermination or mass killings of specific groups of people.
🔸Normally, genocide is much broader than simple mass killings and may involve acts like starvation, forced resettlement and even mass deportations, as in case of
the Holocaust, which wiped out a significant ratio of European Jews.
🔸In December, 1948, the UN General Assembly has passed a Genocide Convention and it came into force in January, 1951.
🔸As per the second article of the genocide convention, genocide means destruction in whole or in part, of a national, ethical, racial or religious group
🔸 Genocide means the systematic extermination or mass killings of specific groups of people.
🔸Normally, genocide is much broader than simple mass killings and may involve acts like starvation, forced resettlement and even mass deportations, as in case of
the Holocaust, which wiped out a significant ratio of European Jews.
🔸In December, 1948, the UN General Assembly has passed a Genocide Convention and it came into force in January, 1951.
🔸As per the second article of the genocide convention, genocide means destruction in whole or in part, of a national, ethical, racial or religious group
📌 GEOPOLITICS :
🔸Geopolitics is a method of undertaking foreign policy analysis which tries to explain the political behavior of the state on the basis of the use of geographical variables.
🔸Geopolitics is a dynamic concept. A country may not be as geopolitically important today but may become so in future.
🔸For example, since the end of the World War II, the state of West Asia, for instance, Saudi Arabia, has been geopolitically important due to the fact that it possessed an extremely important resource in the form of oil and is located near the sea, allowing for easy trade of oil.
🔸Geopolitics is a method of undertaking foreign policy analysis which tries to explain the political behavior of the state on the basis of the use of geographical variables.
🔸Geopolitics is a dynamic concept. A country may not be as geopolitically important today but may become so in future.
🔸For example, since the end of the World War II, the state of West Asia, for instance, Saudi Arabia, has been geopolitically important due to the fact that it possessed an extremely important resource in the form of oil and is located near the sea, allowing for easy trade of oil.
✏️ GREAT POWER
♦️This term is used in the theory of realism by realist scholars and it signifies the ranking of the global states in terms of their economic and military capabilities they possess.
♦️The term called ‘great powers’ found its first written mention in the Treaty of Chaumont in 1817, as, by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia were granted the great power status for the first time.
♦️ In 1944, a foreign policy and IR scholar named William Thornton Rickert Fox replaced the term ‘great powers’ with ‘superpowers’ and since then, the US, Britain, France, Russia and China have been given the status of superpowers.
♦️This term is used in the theory of realism by realist scholars and it signifies the ranking of the global states in terms of their economic and military capabilities they possess.
♦️The term called ‘great powers’ found its first written mention in the Treaty of Chaumont in 1817, as, by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia were granted the great power status for the first time.
♦️ In 1944, a foreign policy and IR scholar named William Thornton Rickert Fox replaced the term ‘great powers’ with ‘superpowers’ and since then, the US, Britain, France, Russia and China have been given the status of superpowers.
✏️GUNBOAT DIPLOMACY
♦️It is a term that has been used with respect to foreign policy since the nineteenth century.
♦️Its first mention was seen in the British foreign policy where the British navy would often be dispatched in a particular region to coerce a state or a ruler to pay debts. The British even dispatched naval squadrons to enforce punishments and restore order.
♦️ Thus, over a period of time, gunboat diplomacy as a term came to be used for naval ships which are used for signalling intentions to an adversary state and are used for power projection.
♦️It is a term that has been used with respect to foreign policy since the nineteenth century.
♦️Its first mention was seen in the British foreign policy where the British navy would often be dispatched in a particular region to coerce a state or a ruler to pay debts. The British even dispatched naval squadrons to enforce punishments and restore order.
♦️ Thus, over a period of time, gunboat diplomacy as a term came to be used for naval ships which are used for signalling intentions to an adversary state and are used for power projection.
✏️ HEGEMONY
♦️Hegemony in the international system is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.
♦️A state with adequate capabilities is called a hegemonic power in relationship to which the other states in the system define their relationship.
♦️When other states define their relationship with a hegemonic power, they could display a behaviour of opposition, display indifference, or even practise acquiescence with the hegemonic state.
♦️Hegemony in the international system is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.
♦️A state with adequate capabilities is called a hegemonic power in relationship to which the other states in the system define their relationship.
♦️When other states define their relationship with a hegemonic power, they could display a behaviour of opposition, display indifference, or even practise acquiescence with the hegemonic state.
✏️HOT PURSUIT
♦️It is a legal doctrine mostly associated with maritime law. Nowadays, it is used to cover activities on land where one state may reserve the right to pursue an offender outside its own territorial limits in national interest.
♦️ In hot pursuit, the authorised agents of a state begin the action in the jurisdiction of the violated party and engage in the operation till the offender is broken off.
♦️It is a legal doctrine mostly associated with maritime law. Nowadays, it is used to cover activities on land where one state may reserve the right to pursue an offender outside its own territorial limits in national interest.
♦️ In hot pursuit, the authorised agents of a state begin the action in the jurisdiction of the violated party and engage in the operation till the offender is broken off.
✏️ IMMIGRATION
♦️It involves the movement of people from (one place to the other) from one state to another state in search of better employment and living conditions.
♦️It is different from a refugee wave. In immigration, the immigrant moves voluntarily rather than having been forced or evicted due to political or natural circumstances, which is the case with a refugee.
♦️ In some countries, the immigrants do pose a cultural threat to the receiving state due to differences in their ideologies and beliefs.
♦️Immigrants do play an important economic role in a society as they send remittances back to their home state.
♦️It involves the movement of people from (one place to the other) from one state to another state in search of better employment and living conditions.
♦️It is different from a refugee wave. In immigration, the immigrant moves voluntarily rather than having been forced or evicted due to political or natural circumstances, which is the case with a refugee.
♦️ In some countries, the immigrants do pose a cultural threat to the receiving state due to differences in their ideologies and beliefs.
♦️Immigrants do play an important economic role in a society as they send remittances back to their home state.
✏️ REVOLUTION
♦️A revolution means a sudden change in the system of governance of a state through violence. A revolution also signifies a change in the value system of the state.
♦️For the Marxist and Leninists, a revolution involves a socio-economic change in the society.
♦️Scholars like Edward Hallett Carr and Martin Wight feel that revolutions often cause instability and thus are not conducive to maintain order in the system.
♦️A revolution means a sudden change in the system of governance of a state through violence. A revolution also signifies a change in the value system of the state.
♦️For the Marxist and Leninists, a revolution involves a socio-economic change in the society.
♦️Scholars like Edward Hallett Carr and Martin Wight feel that revolutions often cause instability and thus are not conducive to maintain order in the system.
✏️ PARADIPLOMACY
♦️In 1990, an American scholar named John Kincaid proposed the concept of paradiplomacy. If we try to define paradiplomacy in the Indian context, then it is a concept where we analyse and study the role played by a local government or a state government to enhance diplomatic ties with countries in the neighborhood.
♦️Paradiplomacy can allow a state to promote trade, culture, flow of economic ideas, and even outsource business and so on. In the recent times, paradiplomacy has been activated by India between India’s north eastern states and Bangladesh when Sheikh Hasina visited India in
2017.
♦️In 1990, an American scholar named John Kincaid proposed the concept of paradiplomacy. If we try to define paradiplomacy in the Indian context, then it is a concept where we analyse and study the role played by a local government or a state government to enhance diplomatic ties with countries in the neighborhood.
♦️Paradiplomacy can allow a state to promote trade, culture, flow of economic ideas, and even outsource business and so on. In the recent times, paradiplomacy has been activated by India between India’s north eastern states and Bangladesh when Sheikh Hasina visited India in
2017.
🖍️SPHERE OF INFLUENCE :
♦️It refers to a situation where an outside state exercises particular economic or military exclusiveness over another region.
♦️ In the context of a sphere of
influence, there is no sovereign control over the other territory.
♦️When one state exercisesits sphere of influence over another state, it restricts the rights of the other power to exercise influence and also imposes limitations on the autonomy of states on which influence is exercised.
♦️It refers to a situation where an outside state exercises particular economic or military exclusiveness over another region.
♦️ In the context of a sphere of
influence, there is no sovereign control over the other territory.
♦️When one state exercisesits sphere of influence over another state, it restricts the rights of the other power to exercise influence and also imposes limitations on the autonomy of states on which influence is exercised.
🖍️TREATY AND CONVENTION
♦️A treaty is a written agreement which is signed by countries or international organisations, making it obligatory for the signatory parties to accept certain rules that have been consensually agreed upon in the contract.
♦️On signature of the treaty,the signatory parties agree to follow the written obligations while agreeing to accept liabilities on failure to follow said obligations.
♦️The treaties are governed through the Vienna Convention (1969), which is also called the laws of treaties or the treaty of treaties.
♦️A treaty is a written agreement which is signed by countries or international organisations, making it obligatory for the signatory parties to accept certain rules that have been consensually agreed upon in the contract.
♦️On signature of the treaty,the signatory parties agree to follow the written obligations while agreeing to accept liabilities on failure to follow said obligations.
♦️The treaties are governed through the Vienna Convention (1969), which is also called the laws of treaties or the treaty of treaties.
🖍️ASIA PACIFIC AND INDO PACIFIC
♦️The term Asia Pacific encompasses Oceania, North -East -Asia and South-East -Asia.
♦️Asia-Pacific is not a security term but an economic concept used to describe the emerging market economies of South-East and East-Asia.
♦️On the other hand, Indo -Pacific is an evolving concept capturing the region from East-Africa to Western Pacific and is strategic-cum-economic conception with special focus on sea lanes of communication.
♦️The term Asia Pacific encompasses Oceania, North -East -Asia and South-East -Asia.
♦️Asia-Pacific is not a security term but an economic concept used to describe the emerging market economies of South-East and East-Asia.
♦️On the other hand, Indo -Pacific is an evolving concept capturing the region from East-Africa to Western Pacific and is strategic-cum-economic conception with special focus on sea lanes of communication.
🖍️THE 123 AGREEMENT :
♦️It refers to the section 123 of the US Atomic Energy Act, 1954 under which the US undertakes nuclear commerce with various countries.
♦️The US used this section to enter into agreements with various countries pertaining to nuclear cooperation. In 1963, India and the US had signed the 123 agreement for Tarapur Atomic Power Station.
♦️The US, after passing the Hyde Act in 2006, signed a 123 agreement with India in July 2007, thereby making an exception by allowing the US to permit nuclear commerce with India despite India being a non-signatory to the NPT.
♦️After the NSG specific waiver (explained in detail in the chapter of India-US relationship in the later part of the book), the 123 agreement was approved by both the houses of the US congress,thereby enabling the ‘US-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-Proliferation Enhancement Act.’
♦️It refers to the section 123 of the US Atomic Energy Act, 1954 under which the US undertakes nuclear commerce with various countries.
♦️The US used this section to enter into agreements with various countries pertaining to nuclear cooperation. In 1963, India and the US had signed the 123 agreement for Tarapur Atomic Power Station.
♦️The US, after passing the Hyde Act in 2006, signed a 123 agreement with India in July 2007, thereby making an exception by allowing the US to permit nuclear commerce with India despite India being a non-signatory to the NPT.
♦️After the NSG specific waiver (explained in detail in the chapter of India-US relationship in the later part of the book), the 123 agreement was approved by both the houses of the US congress,thereby enabling the ‘US-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-Proliferation Enhancement Act.’
🖍️ADDITIONAL PROTOCOL
♦️Additional protocols are basically safeguard agreements. After it was revealed that Iraq had violated the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, a need was felt to have extra safeguards.
♦️Under the old IAEA safeguards, all NPT signatories would specify their nuclear sites and IAEA would carry out inspections in the specified sites.
♦️Thus, IAEA, under the old safeguards, could only carry out inspection for unauthorised activities only at designated or specified sites declared by a country.
♦️This basically left an option open for states to carry out covert nuclear programmes
♦️Additional protocols are basically safeguard agreements. After it was revealed that Iraq had violated the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, a need was felt to have extra safeguards.
♦️Under the old IAEA safeguards, all NPT signatories would specify their nuclear sites and IAEA would carry out inspections in the specified sites.
♦️Thus, IAEA, under the old safeguards, could only carry out inspection for unauthorised activities only at designated or specified sites declared by a country.
♦️This basically left an option open for states to carry out covert nuclear programmes
🖍️ ATOMIC ENERGY ACT , 1962 :
♦️It was in 1948 that India passed its first atomic legislation to establish a framework to manage the Indian nuclear sector.
♦️The Atomic Energy Act 1948, modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act, established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as the main regulatory body.
♦️In 1962, the Atomic Energy Act 1948 was superseded with a new Atomic Energy Act of 1962. Both the legislations have only centralised the Indian State Control over nuclear related activities.
♦️It was in 1948 that India passed its first atomic legislation to establish a framework to manage the Indian nuclear sector.
♦️The Atomic Energy Act 1948, modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act, established the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as the main regulatory body.
♦️In 1962, the Atomic Energy Act 1948 was superseded with a new Atomic Energy Act of 1962. Both the legislations have only centralised the Indian State Control over nuclear related activities.
🖍️ATOMS FOR PEACE:
♦️It was a programme which had its origin in the speech of US President Dwight Eisenhower at the UN General Assembly in 1953.
♦️In the speech, Eisenhower not only highlighted the dangers of nuclear weapons but also proposed peaceful use of nuclear technology.
♦️During the Cold War, the US began to use the programme to win allies in the global order. The US declassified nuclear documents and began to transfer nuclear technology to other states for peaceful use.
♦️India, Pakistan and Iran took advantage of the declassified knowledge to build up peaceful nuclear programmes.
♦️It was a programme which had its origin in the speech of US President Dwight Eisenhower at the UN General Assembly in 1953.
♦️In the speech, Eisenhower not only highlighted the dangers of nuclear weapons but also proposed peaceful use of nuclear technology.
♦️During the Cold War, the US began to use the programme to win allies in the global order. The US declassified nuclear documents and began to transfer nuclear technology to other states for peaceful use.
♦️India, Pakistan and Iran took advantage of the declassified knowledge to build up peaceful nuclear programmes.
🖍️CIVIL NUCLEAR LIABILITY ACT :
♦️The Indian Parliament, in August 2010, passed the Civilian Liability for Nuclear Damages Act (CLNDA).
♦️The legislation is important because India,after the signing of the Indo-US nuclear deal, would have to buy nuclear technologies from various countries.
♦️The law manages the liabilities of suppliers. Now, the Indian version of the CLNDA is perceived by many stakeholders as unworkable due to significant ambiguities in the legislation.
♦️For example, there is ambiguity about calculation of potential liability of a supplier.
♦️The Indian Parliament, in August 2010, passed the Civilian Liability for Nuclear Damages Act (CLNDA).
♦️The legislation is important because India,after the signing of the Indo-US nuclear deal, would have to buy nuclear technologies from various countries.
♦️The law manages the liabilities of suppliers. Now, the Indian version of the CLNDA is perceived by many stakeholders as unworkable due to significant ambiguities in the legislation.
♦️For example, there is ambiguity about calculation of potential liability of a supplier.
🖍️COMPREHENSIVE TEST BAN TREATY :
♦️ The first ever version of CTBT was proposed by Nehru in 1954 to ban atmospheric nuclear testing.
♦️It was later in 1993 that the Conference on Disarmament began to negotiate a CTBT. A text of the CTBT was finally prepared in 1996.
♦️The treaty decided to ban all forms of nuclear testing worldwide. The treaty till date has not come into force.
♦️As we shall see later in the chapter detailing India’s Nuclear Policy, India due to various reasons, has refused to sign the treaty. As India refused to sign the treaty, the treaty itself could not be enforced as it was based on consensus of all parties in the Conference on Disarmament (CD).
♦️ The first ever version of CTBT was proposed by Nehru in 1954 to ban atmospheric nuclear testing.
♦️It was later in 1993 that the Conference on Disarmament began to negotiate a CTBT. A text of the CTBT was finally prepared in 1996.
♦️The treaty decided to ban all forms of nuclear testing worldwide. The treaty till date has not come into force.
♦️As we shall see later in the chapter detailing India’s Nuclear Policy, India due to various reasons, has refused to sign the treaty. As India refused to sign the treaty, the treaty itself could not be enforced as it was based on consensus of all parties in the Conference on Disarmament (CD).