💠 (3)Hyponyms & hypernyms:
In linguistics and lexicography,hyponym is a term used to designate a particular member of a broader class.E.g:daisy and rose are hyponyms of flower.
#Word_relationships
In linguistics and lexicography,hyponym is a term used to designate a particular member of a broader class.E.g:daisy and rose are hyponyms of flower.
#Word_relationships
💠 Hyponyms & hypernyms:
Words that are hyponyms of the same broader term (that is, a hypernym) are called co-hyponyms.
The semantic relationship between each of the more specific words (such as daisy and rose) and the broader term (flower) is called hyponymy or inclusion.
Hyponymy is not restricted to nouns. The verb to see, for example, has several hyponyms—glimpse, stare, gaze, ogle, and so on.
• Etymology: From the Greek, "below" + "name"
✨ Examples & Observations:
"Hyponymy is a less familiar term to most people than either synonymy or antonymy, but it refers to a much more important sense relation.
It describes what happens when we say 'An X is a kind of Y'--A daffodil is a kind of flower, or simply, A daffodil is a flower."
✨ Hyponyms of Red:
"[L]et us consider words that have a similar meaning because they belong to the same segment of a domain. For instance, the words pink, scarlet, orange, hot pink, and pumpkin . . . are all more marked, specific terms for colors that derive from the color red. . . . These words share many of the semantic properties of the word red.
Because these words form a subclass of the word red, they are referred to as hyponyms of red. Similarly, maple, birch, and pine are hyponyms of tree.
✨ A Test for Hyponymy:
"Hyponymy involves specific instantiations of a more general concept such as holds between horse and animal or vermillion and red or buy and get. In each case, one word provides a more specific type of concept than is displayed by the other.
The more specific word is called a hyponym and the more general word is the superordinate which may also be referred to as a hyperonym or hypernym .
Where the words being classified according to this relation are nouns, one can test for hyponymy by replacing X and Y in the frame 'X is a kind of Y' and seeing if the result makes sense.
So we have '(A) horse is a kind of animal' but not '(An) animal is a kind of horse' and so on."
✨ Inclusion:
"In general, there are a number of hyponyms for each superordinate. For example:
boar and piglet are also hyponyms of the superordinate pig, since the meaning of each of the three words sow, boar, and piglet 'contains' the meaning of the word pig.
(Note that in defining a word like sow, boar, or piglet, the superordinate word pig is often used as part of the definition: 'A sow is an adult female pig.')
Thus, it is not surprising that hyponymy is sometimes referred to as inclusion. The superordinate is the included word and the hyponym is the including one."
✨ Hierarchical Relationships and Multiple Layers:
"House is a hyponym of the superordinate building, but building is in turn, a hyponym of the superordinate structure, and, in its turn, structure is a hyponym of the superordinate thing. A superordinate at a given level can itself be a hyponym at a higher level."
" Hyponyms and hypernyms have multiple layers, as in the following examples, where fry is a hyponym of the hypernym cook, but fry itself is a hypernym for some other types of frying:
• Hypernym: cook
• Hyponyms: bake, boil, grill, fry, steam, roast
• Hypernym: fry
• Hyponyms: stir-fry, pan-fry, sauté, deep-fry"
#Word_relationships
Words that are hyponyms of the same broader term (that is, a hypernym) are called co-hyponyms.
The semantic relationship between each of the more specific words (such as daisy and rose) and the broader term (flower) is called hyponymy or inclusion.
Hyponymy is not restricted to nouns. The verb to see, for example, has several hyponyms—glimpse, stare, gaze, ogle, and so on.
• Etymology: From the Greek, "below" + "name"
✨ Examples & Observations:
"Hyponymy is a less familiar term to most people than either synonymy or antonymy, but it refers to a much more important sense relation.
It describes what happens when we say 'An X is a kind of Y'--A daffodil is a kind of flower, or simply, A daffodil is a flower."
✨ Hyponyms of Red:
"[L]et us consider words that have a similar meaning because they belong to the same segment of a domain. For instance, the words pink, scarlet, orange, hot pink, and pumpkin . . . are all more marked, specific terms for colors that derive from the color red. . . . These words share many of the semantic properties of the word red.
Because these words form a subclass of the word red, they are referred to as hyponyms of red. Similarly, maple, birch, and pine are hyponyms of tree.
✨ A Test for Hyponymy:
"Hyponymy involves specific instantiations of a more general concept such as holds between horse and animal or vermillion and red or buy and get. In each case, one word provides a more specific type of concept than is displayed by the other.
The more specific word is called a hyponym and the more general word is the superordinate which may also be referred to as a hyperonym or hypernym .
Where the words being classified according to this relation are nouns, one can test for hyponymy by replacing X and Y in the frame 'X is a kind of Y' and seeing if the result makes sense.
So we have '(A) horse is a kind of animal' but not '(An) animal is a kind of horse' and so on."
✨ Inclusion:
"In general, there are a number of hyponyms for each superordinate. For example:
boar and piglet are also hyponyms of the superordinate pig, since the meaning of each of the three words sow, boar, and piglet 'contains' the meaning of the word pig.
(Note that in defining a word like sow, boar, or piglet, the superordinate word pig is often used as part of the definition: 'A sow is an adult female pig.')
Thus, it is not surprising that hyponymy is sometimes referred to as inclusion. The superordinate is the included word and the hyponym is the including one."
✨ Hierarchical Relationships and Multiple Layers:
"House is a hyponym of the superordinate building, but building is in turn, a hyponym of the superordinate structure, and, in its turn, structure is a hyponym of the superordinate thing. A superordinate at a given level can itself be a hyponym at a higher level."
" Hyponyms and hypernyms have multiple layers, as in the following examples, where fry is a hyponym of the hypernym cook, but fry itself is a hypernym for some other types of frying:
• Hypernym: cook
• Hyponyms: bake, boil, grill, fry, steam, roast
• Hypernym: fry
• Hyponyms: stir-fry, pan-fry, sauté, deep-fry"
#Word_relationships
✨ Test your English before checking the correct answers ❗️
⭕️ Choose the correct answers:
1. …............ the existence of antidrug laws, drug dealers persist in selling drugs illegally.
Despite
However
Although
2. ……......... we have anti-drug laws, drug dealers continue to sell narcotics illegally.
However
In spite of
Although
3. The writer ……………… that global warming is a major threat to the planet.
feels
feel
is feeling
4. ………… my childhood was peaceful, my adulthood is very hectic and stressful.
As
Since
While
5. ………… I get sunburn quite easily, I don’t sunbathe.
While
Because of
Since
6. …………………... I studied at university I sold burgers.
Since
Whereas
While
7. The schools cancelled the classes after the thunderstorm ……… students could be safe.
so as to
so that
such that
8. ……… his long legs, he is a good basketball player.
Due to
Because of
Owing to
All of the above
9. Companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high. ……………… increasing taxes will affect the economy.
Because
Therefore
So
10. Companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high ……………… increasing taxes will affect the economy.
because
so
therefore
11. ……………… companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high, increasing taxes will affect the economy.
Since
Because
So
12. I enjoy reading books ……………… motivate me.
who
that
what
💠 Correct answers & explanations:
👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇
1. Correct answer: although
⚠️ We need a preposition before a noun. Although is used before a clause.
2. Correct answer: although
⚠️ We use although to introduce a clause.
3. Correct answer: feels
⚠️ We use the simple present to talk about opinions.
4. Correct answer: while
⚠️ We use while to connect two contrasting ideas.
5. Correct answer: since
⚠️ Since can introduce the reason or cause.
6. Correct answer: while
⚠️ We can use while to talk about two situations that happen at the same time.
7. Correct answer: so that
⚠️ We use so that to express intention or purpose.
8. Correct answer: all of the above
⚠️ All of these can be used to indicate the reason.
9. Correct answer: so
⚠️ Therefore is a transitional adverb. It does not connect two clauses. So is a conjunction. It connects two clauses.
10. Correct answer: so
⚠️ So is a coordinating conjunction that connects two clauses of equal rank.
11. Correct answers: since/because
⚠️ Both since and because can give the reason for something.
12. Correct answer: that
⚠️ The relative pronoun that can refer to both people and things.
#Activity
⭕️ Choose the correct answers:
1. …............ the existence of antidrug laws, drug dealers persist in selling drugs illegally.
Despite
However
Although
2. ……......... we have anti-drug laws, drug dealers continue to sell narcotics illegally.
However
In spite of
Although
3. The writer ……………… that global warming is a major threat to the planet.
feels
feel
is feeling
4. ………… my childhood was peaceful, my adulthood is very hectic and stressful.
As
Since
While
5. ………… I get sunburn quite easily, I don’t sunbathe.
While
Because of
Since
6. …………………... I studied at university I sold burgers.
Since
Whereas
While
7. The schools cancelled the classes after the thunderstorm ……… students could be safe.
so as to
so that
such that
8. ……… his long legs, he is a good basketball player.
Due to
Because of
Owing to
All of the above
9. Companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high. ……………… increasing taxes will affect the economy.
Because
Therefore
So
10. Companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high ……………… increasing taxes will affect the economy.
because
so
therefore
11. ……………… companies don’t want to invest in countries where taxes are high, increasing taxes will affect the economy.
Since
Because
So
12. I enjoy reading books ……………… motivate me.
who
that
what
💠 Correct answers & explanations:
👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇👇
1. Correct answer: although
⚠️ We need a preposition before a noun. Although is used before a clause.
2. Correct answer: although
⚠️ We use although to introduce a clause.
3. Correct answer: feels
⚠️ We use the simple present to talk about opinions.
4. Correct answer: while
⚠️ We use while to connect two contrasting ideas.
5. Correct answer: since
⚠️ Since can introduce the reason or cause.
6. Correct answer: while
⚠️ We can use while to talk about two situations that happen at the same time.
7. Correct answer: so that
⚠️ We use so that to express intention or purpose.
8. Correct answer: all of the above
⚠️ All of these can be used to indicate the reason.
9. Correct answer: so
⚠️ Therefore is a transitional adverb. It does not connect two clauses. So is a conjunction. It connects two clauses.
10. Correct answer: so
⚠️ So is a coordinating conjunction that connects two clauses of equal rank.
11. Correct answers: since/because
⚠️ Both since and because can give the reason for something.
12. Correct answer: that
⚠️ The relative pronoun that can refer to both people and things.
#Activity
💠“To wave a white flag”
=To show that you’ve lost(a game, challenge or war)and you give up.
💢While I was arguing with my mom about the party I waved a white flag.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#WhiteIdioms
=To show that you’ve lost(a game, challenge or war)and you give up.
💢While I was arguing with my mom about the party I waved a white flag.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#WhiteIdioms
💠 “To paint the town red”
=To go out and have a good time partying.
💢 Our exams are finished. Now it’s time to go out, celebrate and paint the town red.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#RedIdioms
=To go out and have a good time partying.
💢 Our exams are finished. Now it’s time to go out, celebrate and paint the town red.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#RedIdioms
💠“Green thumb”
=Talent for gardening and working with plants.
💢My mother has a real green thumb.Every sunny day she’s outside planting more flowers in her garden.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#GreenIdioms
=Talent for gardening and working with plants.
💢My mother has a real green thumb.Every sunny day she’s outside planting more flowers in her garden.
#Idioms
#ColorfulIdioms
#GreenIdioms
🔰 Linking 'r' :
Those British speakers who don’t pronounce final ‘r’ will reintroduce it when the next word begins with a vowel.
#Pronunciation_tips
Those British speakers who don’t pronounce final ‘r’ will reintroduce it when the next word begins with a vowel.
#Pronunciation_tips
🔰 Elision & assimilation:
• Elision :
✨ I'm going nex(t) week
✨ That was the wors(t) job I ever had!
✨ Jus(t) one person came to the party!
• Assimilation :
✨ Handbag = /hæmbæg/
#Pronunciation_tips
• Elision :
✨ I'm going nex(t) week
✨ That was the wors(t) job I ever had!
✨ Jus(t) one person came to the party!
• Assimilation :
✨ Handbag = /hæmbæg/
#Pronunciation_tips
💢 A collocation is two or more words that often go together.
The idiomatic expression"two peas in a pod" is an example of a collocation.It means "very similar especially in appearance."
#Collocations
The idiomatic expression"two peas in a pod" is an example of a collocation.It means "very similar especially in appearance."
#Collocations
💢 Types of collocations:
1. adverb + adjective
🔺Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.
🔺We entered a richly decorated room.
🔺Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?
2. adjective + noun
🔺The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
🔺The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
🔺He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. noun + noun
🔺Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.
🔺The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
🔺I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.
4. noun + verb
🔺The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.
🔺Snow was falling as our plane took off.
🔺The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
5. verb + noun
🔺The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.
🔺I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
🔺He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.
6. verb + expression with preposition
🔺We had to return home because we had run out of money.
🔺At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
🔺Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.
7. verb + adverb
🔺She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
🔺Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
🔺I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
#Collocations
1. adverb + adjective
🔺Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.
🔺We entered a richly decorated room.
🔺Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?
2. adjective + noun
🔺The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
🔺The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
🔺He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. noun + noun
🔺Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.
🔺The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
🔺I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.
4. noun + verb
🔺The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.
🔺Snow was falling as our plane took off.
🔺The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
5. verb + noun
🔺The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.
🔺I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
🔺He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.
6. verb + expression with preposition
🔺We had to return home because we had run out of money.
🔺At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
🔺Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.
7. verb + adverb
🔺She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
🔺Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
🔺I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
#Collocations
🤔 Collocations VS Phrasal verbs 🤔
💢 COLLOCATIONS 💢
Collocations are words that are generally used together.
⭕️ For example,
commit a crime
make a mistake
distant memory
break a record
bunch of flowers
fast food
⚠️ It would sound strange if you said ’make a crime’, ’do a mistake’, ’remote memory’, ’knock a record’, ’pack of flowers’ or ’quick food’.
These words don’t collocate with each other (don’t sound correct together).
💢 PHRASAL VERBS 💢
Phrasal verbs are verb+preposition combinations, so they are usually two-word expressions (sometimes more).
⭕️ For example,
’look + after’,
’put + off’,
’take + up’
’put + up with’.
The meaning of a phrasal verb is often very different from the original verb:
•She’s looking after the children. (She is taking care of the children.)
•They’ve put off the meeting. (They’ve postponed the meeting.)
•Greg’s taken up golf. (Greg’s started playing golf.)
•I can’t put up with my neighbours any longer. (I can’t tolerate my neighbours any longer.)
#Collocations
#PhrasalVerbs
#VS
💢 COLLOCATIONS 💢
Collocations are words that are generally used together.
⭕️ For example,
commit a crime
make a mistake
distant memory
break a record
bunch of flowers
fast food
⚠️ It would sound strange if you said ’make a crime’, ’do a mistake’, ’remote memory’, ’knock a record’, ’pack of flowers’ or ’quick food’.
These words don’t collocate with each other (don’t sound correct together).
💢 PHRASAL VERBS 💢
Phrasal verbs are verb+preposition combinations, so they are usually two-word expressions (sometimes more).
⭕️ For example,
’look + after’,
’put + off’,
’take + up’
’put + up with’.
The meaning of a phrasal verb is often very different from the original verb:
•She’s looking after the children. (She is taking care of the children.)
•They’ve put off the meeting. (They’ve postponed the meeting.)
•Greg’s taken up golf. (Greg’s started playing golf.)
•I can’t put up with my neighbours any longer. (I can’t tolerate my neighbours any longer.)
#Collocations
#PhrasalVerbs
#VS
✨ Conditionals : more advanced points ✨
⭕️ will in polite requests :
We can use will (meaning 'are willing to ) after if in polite requests.
🔺If you will follow me, I'll show you to the waiting room.
✅ Would is also possible in this structure.
🔺If you would just wait here for a moment, I'll see if she’s free.
⭕️ if ... will: results :
We can use if ... will to mean 'if this will happen as a result.
🔺We can come tomorrow evening instead if it will make things easier.
🔺AII right. I'll give up smoking if it will make you happy.
(Giving up smoking is not the result.)
⭕️ if ... will in indirect speech :
Will is also used after in indirect questions.
🔺I don't know if Ellie will be home for supper.
#Grammar
#Conditionals
⭕️ will in polite requests :
We can use will (meaning 'are willing to ) after if in polite requests.
🔺If you will follow me, I'll show you to the waiting room.
✅ Would is also possible in this structure.
🔺If you would just wait here for a moment, I'll see if she’s free.
⭕️ if ... will: results :
We can use if ... will to mean 'if this will happen as a result.
🔺We can come tomorrow evening instead if it will make things easier.
🔺AII right. I'll give up smoking if it will make you happy.
(Giving up smoking is not the result.)
⭕️ if ... will in indirect speech :
Will is also used after in indirect questions.
🔺I don't know if Ellie will be home for supper.
#Grammar
#Conditionals