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2nd Law of thermodynamics - Principles of Refrigeration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDQgOvmSXCE
The second law of thermodynamics states that:
"In any cyclic process, the entropy must either increase or remain the same".
Consider a steam engine. Steam engines can not convert all of the energy contained in the boiler to useful work. Some of the energy must be dumped into a condenser. The reason for this prerequisite is that extracting energy from a boiler lowers the entropy of the boiler, however dumping a smaller quantity of energy into a condenser (at a lower temperature) raises the entropy of the condenser more than entropy was lowered by extracting the larger quantity of energy from the boiler ( Eq. 2a). In other words, a condenser is needed to meet the requirements of the second law of thermodynamics.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDQgOvmSXCE
The second law of thermodynamics states that:
"In any cyclic process, the entropy must either increase or remain the same".
Consider a steam engine. Steam engines can not convert all of the energy contained in the boiler to useful work. Some of the energy must be dumped into a condenser. The reason for this prerequisite is that extracting energy from a boiler lowers the entropy of the boiler, however dumping a smaller quantity of energy into a condenser (at a lower temperature) raises the entropy of the condenser more than entropy was lowered by extracting the larger quantity of energy from the boiler ( Eq. 2a). In other words, a condenser is needed to meet the requirements of the second law of thermodynamics.
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For steam engines, or any other engine that operates on the principal of heat extraction, the second law of thermodynamics IS absolute (much to the benefit of OPEC). If steam engines could break the second law of thermodynamics, then a steam engine could convert all of the energy from a boiler operating at room temperature, without needing a lower temperature condenser to dump waste energy.
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Inverted populations:
Consider an engine extracting energy from a boiler containing an inverted population of atoms or molecules.
Since the act of energy extraction, raises the entropy of the boiler, this engine DOES NOT require a condenser, and this engine will convert ALL of the extracted energy into useful work. In other words, ANY boiler operating on the right hand side of figure 1 (beyond 50% phase space occupancy), is also operating beyond the point of maximum entropy (disorder), and unlike a conventional boiler, entropy increases as energy is extracted from an inverted population boiler. Therefore no other step is required to meet the condition imposed by the second law.
We have just uncovered a loop hole in the second law of thermodynamics.
Consider an engine extracting energy from a boiler containing an inverted population of atoms or molecules.
Since the act of energy extraction, raises the entropy of the boiler, this engine DOES NOT require a condenser, and this engine will convert ALL of the extracted energy into useful work. In other words, ANY boiler operating on the right hand side of figure 1 (beyond 50% phase space occupancy), is also operating beyond the point of maximum entropy (disorder), and unlike a conventional boiler, entropy increases as energy is extracted from an inverted population boiler. Therefore no other step is required to meet the condition imposed by the second law.
We have just uncovered a loop hole in the second law of thermodynamics.
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This loop hole does NOT allow us to break the second law of thermodynamics. Rather, the loop hole allows us to neatly "side step" the consequences of the second law, as it's traditionally understood to apply, with respect to heat driven engines. In other words, an inverted population exhibits anti-entropic behavior.
Or in more poetic terms, when operating on an inverted population, the spirit of Maxwell's daemon LIVES!
Conclusions:
1) Inverted populations can be created.
2) Inverted populations exhibit anti-entropic behavior.
3) Inverted populations can be used to side step certain consequences of the second law of thermodynamics as it applies to heat driven engines.
4) When operating on an inverted population, the second law of thermodynamics DOES NOT preclude the existence of daemon-like "trap door" structures, as first envisioned by Maxwell.
Or in more poetic terms, when operating on an inverted population, the spirit of Maxwell's daemon LIVES!
Conclusions:
1) Inverted populations can be created.
2) Inverted populations exhibit anti-entropic behavior.
3) Inverted populations can be used to side step certain consequences of the second law of thermodynamics as it applies to heat driven engines.
4) When operating on an inverted population, the second law of thermodynamics DOES NOT preclude the existence of daemon-like "trap door" structures, as first envisioned by Maxwell.
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In 1877, the debate was settled by the mathematician Ludwig Boltzmann. He showed that heat is a property of matter, directly related to the energy stored in it's vibration and/or movement, AND related to the entropy (disorder) of that vibration or movement. Unfortunately his theories were met with extreme skepticism by the scientific community of that era (Maxwell was an exception). Despondent, he later committed suicide. Had he lived just a few more years, Boltzmann would have seen his theories vindicated beyond his wildest dreams. Scientific luminaries such as Albert Einstein and Max Planck used Boltzmann's theories in their work. Work that has shaped modern quantum physics as we know it today.
Max Planck On Entropy and Ludwig Boltzmann
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tfyZmC-N4oU
Max Planck On Entropy and Ludwig Boltzmann
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tfyZmC-N4oU
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đź‘Ť1
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Special class in 15 minutes on Metamaterials / Metametals
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#Nitinol101 #Metamaterial
#Nitinol stands for
Nitinol (Ni)ckel (Ti)tanium (N)ational (O)rdnance (L)aboratory
#Nitinol stands for
Nitinol (Ni)ckel (Ti)tanium (N)ational (O)rdnance (L)aboratory
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1947 - Roswell
What he found were balsa-wood like plastic I-beams (some with hieroglyphic-like writing on them), dark brown plastic insulating sheets, and a great quantity of a dark-grey metal foil. But these were no ordinary plastic and metal. What he observed on that day were remarkably lightweight materials that revealed unheard of physical properties not seen in any known man-made material at the time, or even to this day. For example, he could not tear or burn with his cigarette lighter the extremely thin plastic sheets. Also, a newspaper-thin yet extremely tough, dark-grayish foil, definitely a metal of some sort, had the uncanny ability to return to its original shape.
One person had the bright idea of using a sledgehammer to try to put a permanent dent in the newspaper-thin metal foil. He wasn't able to succeed. The foil simply thumbed its proverbial nose at the man by returning to its original shape without a scratch.
Remarkably, the foil would not melt, and within seconds became cool to the touch.
What he found were balsa-wood like plastic I-beams (some with hieroglyphic-like writing on them), dark brown plastic insulating sheets, and a great quantity of a dark-grey metal foil. But these were no ordinary plastic and metal. What he observed on that day were remarkably lightweight materials that revealed unheard of physical properties not seen in any known man-made material at the time, or even to this day. For example, he could not tear or burn with his cigarette lighter the extremely thin plastic sheets. Also, a newspaper-thin yet extremely tough, dark-grayish foil, definitely a metal of some sort, had the uncanny ability to return to its original shape.
One person had the bright idea of using a sledgehammer to try to put a permanent dent in the newspaper-thin metal foil. He wasn't able to succeed. The foil simply thumbed its proverbial nose at the man by returning to its original shape without a scratch.
Remarkably, the foil would not melt, and within seconds became cool to the touch.
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Interest in titanium alloys, and several notable titanium-based alloys begin after 1947
Scientists at Wright-Patterson laboratories were perplexed with at least one of the materials: the dark-greyish foil. As if the military had no idea what it was or who created the foil, the people at the base needed outside help to access the world's first vacuum furnace developed by the Battelle Memorial Institute.
Later, the military needed more help from Battelle to find ways to attain a higher level of purity for titanium and its alloys and study the properties of this dark-grey alloy, known as NiTi.
https://www.sunrisepage.com/roswell/roswell.htm
Scientists at Wright-Patterson laboratories were perplexed with at least one of the materials: the dark-greyish foil. As if the military had no idea what it was or who created the foil, the people at the base needed outside help to access the world's first vacuum furnace developed by the Battelle Memorial Institute.
Later, the military needed more help from Battelle to find ways to attain a higher level of purity for titanium and its alloys and study the properties of this dark-grey alloy, known as NiTi.
https://www.sunrisepage.com/roswell/roswell.htm
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1958
Nitinol arrived without warning. No previous work predicted its emergence; nobody knows precisely how it works. First encounters with it usually elicit amazement, shock or disbelief. At room temperature, a piece of Nitinol wire is as strong as steel.
Dunk the wire in cold water and it suddenly turns soft and pliable; bend it and it stays bent. But then dip it in hot water and, suddenly coming to life in your hands, it will spring back with great force to its original shape. In short, it has a shape-memory response; it is a solid-state energy conversion system that requires only a temperature change from cool to warm to release forces as great as 10 tonnes per square centimetre.
Key Date
1958
Nitinol arrived without warning. No previous work predicted its emergence; nobody knows precisely how it works. First encounters with it usually elicit amazement, shock or disbelief. At room temperature, a piece of Nitinol wire is as strong as steel.
Dunk the wire in cold water and it suddenly turns soft and pliable; bend it and it stays bent. But then dip it in hot water and, suddenly coming to life in your hands, it will spring back with great force to its original shape. In short, it has a shape-memory response; it is a solid-state energy conversion system that requires only a temperature change from cool to warm to release forces as great as 10 tonnes per square centimetre.
Key Date
1958
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Nitinol’s amazing properties were discovered in 1958 at the US Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). Hence the name: Ni (nickel), Ti (titanium)—plus NOL. The discovery was an accident. When the first Nitinol ingots came out of the furnace, William Buehler, then chief metallurgist for the American navy, routinely tapped the first two finger-size bars against each other, producing a flat, leaden sound. No special surprise. But only minutes later, he found that the next two bars from the same melt rang like a bell when tapped. The only difference was the temperature: the second pair of bars was still warm from the furnace.
Not long after, at a meeting of Navy scientists, Buehler demonstrated another peculiar property of Nitinol: it can be bent repeatedly without showing signs of metal fatigue. And although Nitinol gets warm at the bend point when bent, like any other metallic alloy, it becomes cool when bent back to its original shape.
Not long after, at a meeting of Navy scientists, Buehler demonstrated another peculiar property of Nitinol: it can be bent repeatedly without showing signs of metal fatigue. And although Nitinol gets warm at the bend point when bent, like any other metallic alloy, it becomes cool when bent back to its original shape.
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A puzzled Navy scientist who had just lit his pipe put his lighter to a piece of Nitinol wire that had buckled into a concertina shape. The metal sprang straight. “That,” recalls Buehler, “was the turning point.” Despite its unique properties, Nitinol seems to have been regarded as scarcely more than a scientific curiosity until 1973, when an important but little-noticed breakthrough was made at the Lawrence Laboratory in Berkeley, California; inventor Ridgway Banks built a working model of a Nitinol heat engine.
Banks’s device is a wheel mounted flat on a central shaft. From each spoke hangs a U-shaped loop of Nitinol, each end of which is attached by a sleeve that can slide in or out along the spoke. As each loop enters the hot-water side of the bath below the wheel, it snaps open and some of the energy produced pushes the wheel around.
Banks’s device is a wheel mounted flat on a central shaft. From each spoke hangs a U-shaped loop of Nitinol, each end of which is attached by a sleeve that can slide in or out along the spoke. As each loop enters the hot-water side of the bath below the wheel, it snaps open and some of the energy produced pushes the wheel around.
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The small group of scientists present at the engine’s inauguration felt a keen sense of the event’s historic importance. Nobel
laureate Edwin McMillan, then director of the Lawrence lab, grabbed a handy tissue box and scribbled some quick calculations: the engine was producing about half a watt of mechanical power. Today that box is part of an unofficial Nitinol heat engine archive.
Banks kept the machine running continuously. He watched for signs of fatigue in the Nitinol wire loops. To his astonishment, he found that after a few hundred thousand revolutions, the wheel was spinning faster. It was spinning faster because the Nitinol was developing atwoway memory. It was “learning” to resume its tight-U shape in cold water. Since less of the energy produced by the snap of the loop on the warm-water side had to be used to push the loop on the cold-water side together, more was available for pushing the wheel.
laureate Edwin McMillan, then director of the Lawrence lab, grabbed a handy tissue box and scribbled some quick calculations: the engine was producing about half a watt of mechanical power. Today that box is part of an unofficial Nitinol heat engine archive.
Banks kept the machine running continuously. He watched for signs of fatigue in the Nitinol wire loops. To his astonishment, he found that after a few hundred thousand revolutions, the wheel was spinning faster. It was spinning faster because the Nitinol was developing atwoway memory. It was “learning” to resume its tight-U shape in cold water. Since less of the energy produced by the snap of the loop on the warm-water side had to be used to push the loop on the cold-water side together, more was available for pushing the wheel.
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Ridgway Banks -1970s
Twenty Million Revolutions and Still Going Strong
I made a prototype engine in 1973 from loops of nitinol wire. The engine had two pans, one containing cold water, the other hot, and it worked from the start. It's now made over 20 million revolutions and still turns as briskly as ever, just as long as we maintain the temperature differential. This led to my first patent on a nitinol engine.
As the temperature differential between the heat source and the heat sink need only be 20°C, I can use geothermal hot springs, solar-heated water, or even Arctic Ocean water combined with ambient air as sources of energy. I was certain I could build practical, useful nitinol engines, particularly since the country was seriously thinking about energy and environment during the mid-1970s. My engine, after all, produced usable work from diffuse, low-grade heat—the most abundant source of energy on earth. It had few mechanical parts: The wire was boiler, expander and condenser all in one. It had neither valves nor seals, and the materials were cheap. Best of all, the engine was nonpolluting. I confidently predicted I'd have a commercial prototype within a year or two.
https://vimeo.com/45924783
Twenty Million Revolutions and Still Going Strong
I made a prototype engine in 1973 from loops of nitinol wire. The engine had two pans, one containing cold water, the other hot, and it worked from the start. It's now made over 20 million revolutions and still turns as briskly as ever, just as long as we maintain the temperature differential. This led to my first patent on a nitinol engine.
As the temperature differential between the heat source and the heat sink need only be 20°C, I can use geothermal hot springs, solar-heated water, or even Arctic Ocean water combined with ambient air as sources of energy. I was certain I could build practical, useful nitinol engines, particularly since the country was seriously thinking about energy and environment during the mid-1970s. My engine, after all, produced usable work from diffuse, low-grade heat—the most abundant source of energy on earth. It had few mechanical parts: The wire was boiler, expander and condenser all in one. It had neither valves nor seals, and the materials were cheap. Best of all, the engine was nonpolluting. I confidently predicted I'd have a commercial prototype within a year or two.
https://vimeo.com/45924783
Vimeo
The Individualist
Documentary profile of Ridgway Banks, inventor of the world's first solid-state alternative energy heat engine. Premiered at Slamdance International Film Festival…
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