🔴DEFINITION

🔶Autonomic nervous system=

A part of the nervous system that regulates key involuntary functions of the body, including the activity of the heart muscle; the smooth muscles, including the muscles of the intestinal tract; and the glands.

🔶Sympathetic nervous system=

A part of the nervous system that serves to accelerate the heart rate, constrict blood vessels, and raise blood pressure.

🔶Parasympathetic nervous system =

The part of the involuntary nervous system that serves to slow the heart rate, increase intestinal and glandular activity, and relax the sphincter muscles.

🔶 Teratogenicity=

It refers to the capacity of the drug to cause foetal abnormalities when administered to the pregnant mother.

🔶Gout =

It is the metabolic disorder characterized by hyperuricaemia i.e. uric acid deposited in the joints.

🔴Mechanism of drug absorption

The three broad categories of drugs transport mechanism involved in absorption are:--

📌Transcellular/ intercellular transport
📌Paracellular /intracellular transport
📌 Vesicular or Corpuscular transport

🔹 Transcellularlar/ Intracellular Transport :- It is defined as passage of drug across the GI epithelium. it is most common pathway for drug transport .The 3 steps involved in trancecellular transport of drugs are__
(1)Permeation of GI epithelial cell membrane, a lipoidal barrier this is the major obstacle to drug absorption.
(2) Movement across the intercellular space (cytosol).
(3) Permeation of the lateral of basolateral membrane --
This is of secondary importance.
The virus transcellular transport process involved in drug absorption are :--

🔸Passive transport process :
This transport process do not require energy or other than that of molecular motion (Brownian motion) pass through the lipid bilayer. passive transport process can be further classified into following type.--
(a) Passive diffusion.
(b) Pore transport
(C) ion pair transport.
(d) facilitated or Mediated diffusion
🔸 Active transport process :-
These transport process require energy from ATP to move drug molecule from extracellular to intracellular milieu.They are of two types --
(a) Primary active transport
(b) secondary active transport--- this process is further subdivided into two--
(1) symport (co-transport)
(2) Antiport (Counter-transport)

🔹Paracellular/Intracellular Transporte :-
It is defined as the transport of the drugs through the junction between the GI epithelial cells. This pathway is of minor importance in drug absorption.The two paracellular transport mechanism involved in the absorption are--
🔸Permeation truth tight junction of epithelial cells:-
This process basically occurs through opening which are little bigger than the aqueous pores. Compounds such as insulin and cardiac glycosides are taken up by the mechanism
🔸Persorption :-
It is Persorption address through temporary opening fromed by shedding of two negighbouring cells into the lumen.

◾Paracellular transport differ from pore transport in that involves transfer of drugs across with epithelium and through the cellular junctions whereas in the case of latter,the molecules are transferred from outside of epithelium cell into the space through pores present in the cells in membrane.

🔹Vesicular or Corpuscular transport (Endocytosis) :-Active transport these are also energy depended process but involved transport, of within vesicles into a cell since the mechanism involves transport across the cell membrane, the process can also be classified as transcellular services Sula transport of drug can be classed into two categories__
🔸Pinocytosis(Cell eating) :- Adsorptive uptake of solid particulates.
🔸Phagocytosis(Cell drinking) :- Uptake of fluid solute.

🔴MECHANIAM OF ACTION

📌ACETYLCHOLINE
It is the chief neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system, the part of the autonomic nervous system (a branch of the peripheral nervous system) that contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate.

📌PILOCARPINE
▪Pilocarpine is a drug that acts as a muscarinic receptor agonist.
▪It acts on a subtype of muscarinic receptor (M3) found on the iris sphincter muscle, causing the muscle to contract - resulting in pupil constriction (miosis). ▪Pilocarpine also acts on the ciliary muscle and causes it to contract. When the ciliary muscle contracts, it opens the trabecular meshwork through increased tension on the scleral spur.
▪This action facilitates the rate that aqueous humor leaves the eye to decrease intraocular pressure. ▪Paradoxically, when pilocarpine induces this ciliary muscle contraction (known as an accommodative spasm) it causes the eye's lens to thicken and move forward within the eye. This movement causes the iris (which is located immediately in front of the lens) to also move forward, narrowing the Anterior chamber angle. ▪Narrowing of the anterior chamber angle increases the risk of increased intraocular pressure.

🔴Drug Effects Of Cholinergic Drugs🔴

📌 "MSLUBDD"📌

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➡️Miosis
➡️Salivation
➡️Lacrimation
➡️Urination
➡️Bronchoconstriction
➡️Defaecation
➡️Decreased Heart Rate

1) Kraft point: Temperature at which solubility of surfactant equal to CMC.

2) Cloud point: Temperature above which cloudiness occurs.

3) Upper consulate temperature: Temperature above which two liquids get completely miscible, e.g. Phenol-water.

4) Lower consulate temperature: Temperature below which two liquids get completely immiscible, e.g. Triethyl amine water.

5) Syneresis: Shrinkage of gel by extrusion of liquid.

6) Draves test: Efficiency of wetting agent.

7) Pumice: Gas in solid.

8) Foam: Gas in liquid.

9) Bulges: Bentonite magma.

10) Spur: Procaine penicillin gel.

11) Schulze-Hardy rule: Precipitating power of oppositely charged ion.

12) Hofmeister Rank series: Precipitating power directly related to ability to separate water molecule.

13) Mark-Hou wink equation: Intrinsic viscosity.

14) Fanning equation: Energy loss due to friction.

15) Van der Waal’s equation: Real gases.

16) Clausius-Clapeyron equation: Heat of vaporisation.

17) Darcy equation: Filtration rate.

18) Instron tester: Tackiness and stickiness.

19) Cryoscopic constant: Freezing point depression (Beckmann apparatus).

20) Ebullioscopic constant: Elevation of boiling point.

21) Graham’s law: Diffusion of Gases.

22) Dalton’s law: Total vapour pressure.

23) Raoult’s law: Partial vapour pressure (Positive deviation: Benzene; Negative deviation: Acetone, chloroform)

24) Parachor: Liquid surface tension (sudgen constant).

25) Rabbit RBC’s: Standardisation of electrophoretic cells and zeta meter.

@KTADailyQuiz

🔴DEFINITION

🔶Anticholinergic:

Opposing the actions of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Anticholinergic drugs inhibit the transmission of parasympathetic nerve impulses, thereby reducing spasms of smooth muscles .

🔶Antimuscarinic drugs :

Inhibiting or preventing the actions of muscarine and muscarinelike agents, or the effects of parasympathetic stimulation at the neuroeffector junction.

🔶antinicotinic drugs=

That inhibits the actions of nicotine and nicotine-like agents on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

🔶 Anti-neoplastic agents :

The agents/drugs which are used in the treatment of cancer is called as anti-neoplastic agents.

🔶 Absorption :

The movement of drugs from its site of administration into the circulation is called as absorption.

🔴MECHANISM OF ACTION

📌ATROPINE

▪Atropine is an antimuscarinic that works through competitive inhibition of postganglionic acetylcholine receptors and direct vagolytic action, which leads to parasympathetic inhibition of the acetylcholine receptors in smooth muscle.
▪The end effect of increased parasympathetic inhibition allows for preexisting sympathetic stimulation to predominate, creating increased cardiac output and other associated antimuscarinic side effects

📌CYCLOPENTOLATE
▪It is a muscarinic antagonist. 
▪It is commonly used as an eye drop during pediatric eye examinations to dilate the eye (mydriatic) and prevent the eye from focusing/accommodating (cycloplegic). ▪Cyclopentolate or atropine can also be administered to reverse muscarinic and central nervous system effects of indirect cholinomimetic  administration.

🔴Mechanism of Protein-Drug Binding
  
         Binding of drugs to proteins is generally reversible which suggests that it generally involves weak chemical bonds such as :
1. Hydrogen bonds
2. Hydrophobic bonds
3. Ionic bonds
4. van der Waal's forces
■ Binding of drugs falls into 2 classes :
▫Binding of drugs to blood components like --
(a) Plasma Proteins
(b) Blood cells
▫Binding of drugs to extracellular tissue proteins,fats, bones, etc.

📌Binding of drugs to Blood Components
🔹Plasma Proteins-DrugBinding:-
 The interaction of drug in the blood compartment is with the plasma proteins which are present in abundant amounts ∈ large variety.
The order of binding of drugs to plasma proteins is :
Albumin > alpha1-Acid Glycoprotein > Lipoproteins > Globulins.
🔹Binding of drugs to Human Serum Albumin :-
The human serum albumin(HSA),having a molecular weight 65,000 is most abundant plasma protein. The HSA can bind several compounds.
4 different sites on HSA for drug binding:-
-Site I :- Warfarin &Azapropazone binding site
-Site II:- Diazepam binding site
-Site III:- Digitoxin binding site
-Site IV:- Tamoxifen binding site
🔹Binding of drugs to alpha1-Acid Glycoprotein :-
It is also known as Orosomucoid it has a molecular weight of 44,000 & a plasma concentration range of 0.04 - 0.1%.
It binds to the number of drugs like Imipramine,Lidocaine, Propranolol &Quinidine,etc.
🔹Binding of drugs to Lipoproteins :-
The drug that binds to lipoproteins does so by dissolving in the lipid core of the protein & its capacity to bind depends upon its lipid  content.
They are classified in the basis of their density into 4 categories:-
1. Chylomicrons(least dense & largest in size).
2. Very low density lipoproteins(VLDL)
3. Low density lipoproteins(LDL)predominant in humans.
4. High density lipoproteins(HDL)most dense& smallest in size.
🔹Binding of drugs to Globulins :-
Different types of plasma globulins are binds they are:-
1. alpha1-globulin:-also called as Transcortin or Corticosteroid Binding Globulin(CBG).It binds to thyroxine & cyanocobalamin.
2. alpha2-globulin:-also called as Ceruloplasmin. It binds to vit.A,D,E,K & cupric ions.
3. beta1-globulin:-also called as Transferrin. It binds to ferrous ions.
4. beta2-globulin:-It binds to carotenoids.
5. gamma-globulin:-It binds specifically you antigens.
🔹Binding of drugs to Blood cells:-
More than 40%of the blood comprises of blood cells of which the major cell component is the RBC.
The RBC comprises of 3 components each of which bind to drugs :-
1. Haemoglobin: Drugs like Phenytoin,  phenobarbital & phenothaizines bind to Hb.
2. Carbonic Anhydrous: Drugs bind to acetazolamide & chlorthalidone.
3. Cell Membrane: Imipramine & chlorpromazine are bind with the RBC membrane.

📌Tissue binding of drugs
--A drug can bind to one or more of the several tissue components.
--Tissue drug binding is important in distribution from 2 points :
1. It increases the apparent volume of distribution of drugs in contrast to plasma protein binding which decreases it.
2. Tigssue drug binding results in localization of a drug at a specific site in the body.
--Drugs that bind to extracellular tissues the order of binding is:
Liver > Kidney > Lung > Muscles

🔴ADR OF ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS🔴

📌Dry Mouth
📌Blurred Vision
📌Dry Eyes
📌Constipation
📌Urinary Retention
📌Dizziness(Postural Hypotension)
📌Cognitive Problems(Confusion)
📌Heart Rhythm Disturbance