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We’ve all been there: waking up from a bad night’s sleep, we drift through the day like half-conscious zombies, yawning uncontrollably and unable to focus on our work. We dream about the moment we can get back to bed, but as soon as our head hits the pillow…
What’s the use of all these sleep suggestions if we’re going to ignore the place we sleep in? Our surroundings have a huge impact on the quality of our rest, so taking sleep seriously means taking our bedrooms seriously by creating a sleep sanctuary.
The key point here is that our sleep sanctuary should have fresh, clean air and provoke feelings of relaxation.
Introducing house plants into the bedroom is a great way to achieve this. The organic sights and earthy smells of greenery have been shown to induce calm and increase happiness, and plants are excellent natural air filters. And maintaining good air quality is crucial when creating sleep sanctuaries.
That’s because air contains ions, which are simply atoms with electric charges. Ions with a negative electrical charge are extremely energizing, and they improve our health by oxidizing mold, parasites and toxic chemical gases. But over time, the air we breathe becomes stale as the oxygen content drops and ions lose their negative charge.
Plants fix this, converting carbon dioxide into oxygen and recharging the air’s ions. One great houseplant for your sleep sanctuary is English Ivy. Not only is this plant extremely hardy; it was also found by NASA to be the best air-filtering houseplant, pumping out oxygen and absorbing formaldehyde, a harmful neurotoxin all too common in industrialized countries.
Another great choice is mother-in-law’s tongue. This is a tough piece of flora, needing minimal water and light to flourish – perfect for a dark bedroom! Most remarkable, though, is its ability to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen at night; most plants only do this during the day.
But if there’s one golden rule for sleep sanctuaries, it’s this: keep work out of the bedroom.
Bringing phone calls, texts and emails into our sleeping space is one of the worst things we can do. That’s because it creates a spike in our cortisol levels – a hormone closely associated with stress and wakefulness. It also leads our brains to create a negative association with our bedroom, which subconsciously makes it more difficult to sleep there. We need to be strict with ourselves and not allow work to enter our sleep sanctuary; this is a place for us to switch off and zone out.
All that’s left now is to enter your new sleep sanctuary armed with all of these practical sleeping tips, and to get ready for the best night’s rest you’ve ever had!
▫️ ▫️ ▫️
@keep_learning_english
The key point here is that our sleep sanctuary should have fresh, clean air and provoke feelings of relaxation.
Introducing house plants into the bedroom is a great way to achieve this. The organic sights and earthy smells of greenery have been shown to induce calm and increase happiness, and plants are excellent natural air filters. And maintaining good air quality is crucial when creating sleep sanctuaries.
That’s because air contains ions, which are simply atoms with electric charges. Ions with a negative electrical charge are extremely energizing, and they improve our health by oxidizing mold, parasites and toxic chemical gases. But over time, the air we breathe becomes stale as the oxygen content drops and ions lose their negative charge.
Plants fix this, converting carbon dioxide into oxygen and recharging the air’s ions. One great houseplant for your sleep sanctuary is English Ivy. Not only is this plant extremely hardy; it was also found by NASA to be the best air-filtering houseplant, pumping out oxygen and absorbing formaldehyde, a harmful neurotoxin all too common in industrialized countries.
Another great choice is mother-in-law’s tongue. This is a tough piece of flora, needing minimal water and light to flourish – perfect for a dark bedroom! Most remarkable, though, is its ability to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen at night; most plants only do this during the day.
But if there’s one golden rule for sleep sanctuaries, it’s this: keep work out of the bedroom.
Bringing phone calls, texts and emails into our sleeping space is one of the worst things we can do. That’s because it creates a spike in our cortisol levels – a hormone closely associated with stress and wakefulness. It also leads our brains to create a negative association with our bedroom, which subconsciously makes it more difficult to sleep there. We need to be strict with ourselves and not allow work to enter our sleep sanctuary; this is a place for us to switch off and zone out.
All that’s left now is to enter your new sleep sanctuary armed with all of these practical sleeping tips, and to get ready for the best night’s rest you’ve ever had!
@keep_learning_english
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What makes a person just? And how can we define a just city? Answers to these types of questions are what Socrates, the gadfly of Athens, seeks to ferret out over the course of the Republic.
Though Plato wrote this dialogue more than 2,000 years ago, it is still the centerpiece of both philosophy and political theory. Indeed, Sir Alfred North Whitehead, the mathematician and metaphysician, once called all of philosophy “a footnote to Plato.” An indispensable part of the Western canon, the Republic puts you in the shoes of one of Socrates’s students, following him around as he questions various people on the roles played by justice, philosophy and art in the forming of the city and of the soul.
So in these blinks, you’ll find out why merely appearing to be just is the worst type of injustice;why the “noble lie” ties people to their community; andwhy the soul is composed like a speech.
▫️ ▫️ ▫️
How do you define justice? No matter how well considered your response may be, Socrates would probably be able to dismantle your definition. Throughout the dialogue between him and his interlocutors, he examines and questions several definitions of justice.
The first definition comes from Polemarchus, who claims that justice is to give each person what they are owed. In response, Socrates tries to undermine this definition by finding exceptions to it. What if weapons are owed? Although one should return what one owes, one should not offer weapons to someone who is insane and threatening to harm someone.
So, the definition of justice as “giving what is owed” doesn’t always hold.
Polemarchus then provides another answer: Being just means assisting friends and harming enemies. To this, Socrates queries whether there are circumstances under which it is moral to do harm. He finds that there aren’t. Animal trainers, he says, don’t benefit animals they harm; likewise, people become less moral if harmed. Additionally, one can mistake friends for enemies, and enemies for friends, and therefore end up benefiting those one meant to harm.
So, since harming someone isn’t beneficial and our judgments cannot be absolutely accurate, this second definition also falls apart.
The third definition, posited by Thrasymachus, is that justice is whatever is advantageous to the ruler.
Socrates questions whether this definition also applies to those in other positions – such as, say, a doctor. The health of the patient, rather than the doctor’s benefit, should be the doctor’s main concern. A ruler that seeks to benefit himself, instead of his people, is not a just ruler. Like the doctor, the ruler should aim to do good for his “patient,” i.e., the city.
This third definition is also inadequate and so the first attempts to define justice come to an aporia, an impasse in the dialogue.
🎅 @keep_learning_english
Though Plato wrote this dialogue more than 2,000 years ago, it is still the centerpiece of both philosophy and political theory. Indeed, Sir Alfred North Whitehead, the mathematician and metaphysician, once called all of philosophy “a footnote to Plato.” An indispensable part of the Western canon, the Republic puts you in the shoes of one of Socrates’s students, following him around as he questions various people on the roles played by justice, philosophy and art in the forming of the city and of the soul.
So in these blinks, you’ll find out why merely appearing to be just is the worst type of injustice;why the “noble lie” ties people to their community; andwhy the soul is composed like a speech.
How do you define justice? No matter how well considered your response may be, Socrates would probably be able to dismantle your definition. Throughout the dialogue between him and his interlocutors, he examines and questions several definitions of justice.
The first definition comes from Polemarchus, who claims that justice is to give each person what they are owed. In response, Socrates tries to undermine this definition by finding exceptions to it. What if weapons are owed? Although one should return what one owes, one should not offer weapons to someone who is insane and threatening to harm someone.
So, the definition of justice as “giving what is owed” doesn’t always hold.
Polemarchus then provides another answer: Being just means assisting friends and harming enemies. To this, Socrates queries whether there are circumstances under which it is moral to do harm. He finds that there aren’t. Animal trainers, he says, don’t benefit animals they harm; likewise, people become less moral if harmed. Additionally, one can mistake friends for enemies, and enemies for friends, and therefore end up benefiting those one meant to harm.
So, since harming someone isn’t beneficial and our judgments cannot be absolutely accurate, this second definition also falls apart.
The third definition, posited by Thrasymachus, is that justice is whatever is advantageous to the ruler.
Socrates questions whether this definition also applies to those in other positions – such as, say, a doctor. The health of the patient, rather than the doctor’s benefit, should be the doctor’s main concern. A ruler that seeks to benefit himself, instead of his people, is not a just ruler. Like the doctor, the ruler should aim to do good for his “patient,” i.e., the city.
This third definition is also inadequate and so the first attempts to define justice come to an aporia, an impasse in the dialogue.
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What makes a person just? And how can we define a just city? Answers to these types of questions are what Socrates, the gadfly of Athens, seeks to ferret out over the course of the Republic. Though Plato wrote this dialogue more than 2,000 years ago, it is…
After this impasse, Socrates proposes his own definition of justice: minding one’s own business. This, he says, has both a private and a public aspect to it.
To mind our own business is to responsibly play our appropriate role, and thereby benefit both ourselves and our city. The citizens of a city that functions in a just and well-organized fashion each have their role, perfectly suited to them. Because of this, no one person has to take care of everything themselves.
Socrates specifies that a city should include craft workers, doctors, merchants, rulers and soldiers and that each person should acknowledge their individual role and then ably fulfill it. Knowledge of one’s role depends on the city’s having just institutions that educate inhabitants on their appropriate duties.
Once they know what their duties are, individuals mind their own business by carrying out their role in a just and appropriate manner. This, in turn, reverberates through the city, making it either just or unjust.
Socrates explains that not everyone is appropriate for every role, however. For instance, someone suitable for being a general won’t necessarily make the best horse-trainer.
Each person’s job must benefit the community at large – that’s its social role. Take the example of the ruler: a just ruler reigns for the city, whereas a tyrant rules for his own gain. So, a tyrant’s actions reflect the corrupt society he controls, while a just ruler’s actions reflect the just city he rules.
Justice for each person cannot therefore be viewed independently of justice for the city.
Determining one’s role is never an individual’s decision, but is shaped by the needs of the city and by the individual’s skills.
In an ideal and just city, the city’s needs and the individual’s needs work symbiotically, the city benefitting from its people and its people benefitting from it.
▫️ ▫️ ▫️
There is a thread that runs through the dialogues on justice – the difference between essence and appearance. That is, how something appears as opposed to what it actually is. The greatest kind of injustice is for someone to seem just, when in actuality he is unjust.
Plato’s brother, Glaucon, now joins the dialogue. Both Glaucon and Socrates attempt to understand justice and present the idea that a just life is more desirable than an unjust life.
Glaucon, playing the devil’s advocate, makes a claim that he wants Socrates to disprove. His claim is that the majority of the population considers the mere appearance of leading a just life to be better than actually being just.
Socrates, however, not only refutes this but stresses that such a life is extremely unjust.
It’s comparable to someone who seems to be a skilled weapon-maker, when they are actually incompetent, he says. Such false claims would lead to robust-looking shields that disintegrate in battle. The point, here, is that one’s true character has nothing to do with appearances. Put someone to the test and you’ll learn what kind of metal they’re made of.
Finally, Socrates states that one can discern whether someone is just or unjust by studying their environment – the city – and the relations they have with others. Therefore, in order for an individual to be just, their city must be just, and not merely seemingly so.
Socrates then says that without a just city, just individuals cannot exist. So individuals who live in cities whose laws benefit the few, not the many, live in unjust cities, even if they appear to be just.
Such cities are often ruled by tyrants, whose unjust acts are used to build a reputation of justice. The laws of the tyrant always favor him and disfavor all who go against him. Rather than reaching for a common good, the tyrant seeks only to gratify his personal goals.
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To mind our own business is to responsibly play our appropriate role, and thereby benefit both ourselves and our city. The citizens of a city that functions in a just and well-organized fashion each have their role, perfectly suited to them. Because of this, no one person has to take care of everything themselves.
Socrates specifies that a city should include craft workers, doctors, merchants, rulers and soldiers and that each person should acknowledge their individual role and then ably fulfill it. Knowledge of one’s role depends on the city’s having just institutions that educate inhabitants on their appropriate duties.
Once they know what their duties are, individuals mind their own business by carrying out their role in a just and appropriate manner. This, in turn, reverberates through the city, making it either just or unjust.
Socrates explains that not everyone is appropriate for every role, however. For instance, someone suitable for being a general won’t necessarily make the best horse-trainer.
Each person’s job must benefit the community at large – that’s its social role. Take the example of the ruler: a just ruler reigns for the city, whereas a tyrant rules for his own gain. So, a tyrant’s actions reflect the corrupt society he controls, while a just ruler’s actions reflect the just city he rules.
Justice for each person cannot therefore be viewed independently of justice for the city.
Determining one’s role is never an individual’s decision, but is shaped by the needs of the city and by the individual’s skills.
In an ideal and just city, the city’s needs and the individual’s needs work symbiotically, the city benefitting from its people and its people benefitting from it.
There is a thread that runs through the dialogues on justice – the difference between essence and appearance. That is, how something appears as opposed to what it actually is. The greatest kind of injustice is for someone to seem just, when in actuality he is unjust.
Plato’s brother, Glaucon, now joins the dialogue. Both Glaucon and Socrates attempt to understand justice and present the idea that a just life is more desirable than an unjust life.
Glaucon, playing the devil’s advocate, makes a claim that he wants Socrates to disprove. His claim is that the majority of the population considers the mere appearance of leading a just life to be better than actually being just.
Socrates, however, not only refutes this but stresses that such a life is extremely unjust.
It’s comparable to someone who seems to be a skilled weapon-maker, when they are actually incompetent, he says. Such false claims would lead to robust-looking shields that disintegrate in battle. The point, here, is that one’s true character has nothing to do with appearances. Put someone to the test and you’ll learn what kind of metal they’re made of.
Finally, Socrates states that one can discern whether someone is just or unjust by studying their environment – the city – and the relations they have with others. Therefore, in order for an individual to be just, their city must be just, and not merely seemingly so.
Socrates then says that without a just city, just individuals cannot exist. So individuals who live in cities whose laws benefit the few, not the many, live in unjust cities, even if they appear to be just.
Such cities are often ruled by tyrants, whose unjust acts are used to build a reputation of justice. The laws of the tyrant always favor him and disfavor all who go against him. Rather than reaching for a common good, the tyrant seeks only to gratify his personal goals.
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What makes a person just? And how can we define a just city? Answers to these types of questions are what Socrates, the gadfly of Athens, seeks to ferret out over the course of the Republic. Though Plato wrote this dialogue more than 2,000 years ago, it is…
Socrates postulates that education should instruct individuals to be just. Therefore, a sound education is one that enables individuals to have a healthy mind and body that can shield and strengthen the city.
For example, musical education paves the way to a healthy mind, and gymnastics leads to a healthy body.
Music helps educate the mind and soul through rhythm and harmony, both of which can bestow balanced mental order and lead to a just character. This balanced order is also needed for a variety of arts and crafts.
Gymnastics, on the other hand, promotes physical strength and solidifies group cooperation. In particular, Olympic sports foster both individual strength and group mentality.
Individuals strengthen themselves by running or javelin throwing. Groups train by wrestling and engaging in combat exercises, activities that necessitate cooperation among individuals, and thus improve group mentality.
The benefit of music and gymnastics is that they make citizens healthy in mind and body because they enable the progress and strengthening of a city’s culture and military.
While a healthy mind and body are advantageous to the individual, something else is necessary in order to promote justice and make the individual feel involved in the future of her city: a noble lie that connects individuals to their city and their community.
The noble lie teaches citizens that the Earth is their mother and nurse, and that all citizens have risen from beneath the city. As the city’s foundation is the Earth, so the citizens also depend upon the Earth, which bore them. According to Socrates, individuals must be told this lie – or an equivalent myth – by their guardians. It’s what makes them feel connected to their city.
The noble lie ensures that people will protect the city in times of conflict and reinforce it in times of peace.
▫️ ▫️ ▫️
It’s impossible to study someone without also examining their city, Socrates says. Not only does a city create its citizens, but the citizens also form and develop their city. The just person and the just city need each other.
A city forms its citizens in accordance with its laws and institutions. Then, as citizens mature and take on different offices, they can alter laws and devise new ones, helping the city to progress along with them.
You cannot, therefore, have a just person in an unjust community, or an unjust person in a just community.
To demonstrate his point, Socrates draws an analogy between the city and the human soul.
When Glaucon requests that Socrates examine the soul of the just person, Socrates says the soul is like a speech, because it has reason and logic. The soul of a person can be revealed through conversation with that person and through her explanations of her behavior.
The just city is like a just person, only on a larger scale. Therefore, the speeches, dialogues and laws on which the just city is founded must be examined by way of discussion.
Since one can understand how a person thinks by conversing with that person, one can understand a city by talking about it with others.
If the city is just, it will give rise to just individuals who can offer an account of their actions and debate what constitutes their justness.
Understanding a just person, then, is also a matter of analyzing the just city via speeches and dialogues, such as those between Socrates and his interlocutors.
🎅 @keep_learning_english
For example, musical education paves the way to a healthy mind, and gymnastics leads to a healthy body.
Music helps educate the mind and soul through rhythm and harmony, both of which can bestow balanced mental order and lead to a just character. This balanced order is also needed for a variety of arts and crafts.
Gymnastics, on the other hand, promotes physical strength and solidifies group cooperation. In particular, Olympic sports foster both individual strength and group mentality.
Individuals strengthen themselves by running or javelin throwing. Groups train by wrestling and engaging in combat exercises, activities that necessitate cooperation among individuals, and thus improve group mentality.
The benefit of music and gymnastics is that they make citizens healthy in mind and body because they enable the progress and strengthening of a city’s culture and military.
While a healthy mind and body are advantageous to the individual, something else is necessary in order to promote justice and make the individual feel involved in the future of her city: a noble lie that connects individuals to their city and their community.
The noble lie teaches citizens that the Earth is their mother and nurse, and that all citizens have risen from beneath the city. As the city’s foundation is the Earth, so the citizens also depend upon the Earth, which bore them. According to Socrates, individuals must be told this lie – or an equivalent myth – by their guardians. It’s what makes them feel connected to their city.
The noble lie ensures that people will protect the city in times of conflict and reinforce it in times of peace.
It’s impossible to study someone without also examining their city, Socrates says. Not only does a city create its citizens, but the citizens also form and develop their city. The just person and the just city need each other.
A city forms its citizens in accordance with its laws and institutions. Then, as citizens mature and take on different offices, they can alter laws and devise new ones, helping the city to progress along with them.
You cannot, therefore, have a just person in an unjust community, or an unjust person in a just community.
To demonstrate his point, Socrates draws an analogy between the city and the human soul.
When Glaucon requests that Socrates examine the soul of the just person, Socrates says the soul is like a speech, because it has reason and logic. The soul of a person can be revealed through conversation with that person and through her explanations of her behavior.
The just city is like a just person, only on a larger scale. Therefore, the speeches, dialogues and laws on which the just city is founded must be examined by way of discussion.
Since one can understand how a person thinks by conversing with that person, one can understand a city by talking about it with others.
If the city is just, it will give rise to just individuals who can offer an account of their actions and debate what constitutes their justness.
Understanding a just person, then, is also a matter of analyzing the just city via speeches and dialogues, such as those between Socrates and his interlocutors.
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If you’d like to vacation at the newly found planet orbiting Proxima Centauri, you might want to reconsider. It’s nearby astronomically — a mere 4.2 light-years away — but still too far away for any plausible transportation technology to reach within the current millennium.
In fact, it’s a pretty safe bet the Chicago Cubs will win the World Series before any human steps foot on Earth’s nearest exoplanetary neighbor (known as Proxima b). Unless P. Centaurian aliens arrive soon with a “To Serve Man” cookbook, your chances of visiting Proxima b before you die are about the same as sainthood for Ted Bundy. By the time anybody from here goes there, years will have five digits.
It took NASA’s New Horizons probe — the fastest spacecraft humans have ever launched — over nine years just to get to Pluto. At its top speed of 16 kilometers per second, New Horizons would need almost 80,000 years to get to Proxima Centauri.
Solar sail propulsion — in which lightweight craft could be accelerated by pressure from sunlight — would be a little be faster, but not by much, taking (by one estimate) 66,000 years to make the Proxima Centauri run.
Novel propulsion schemes have been proposed that could reduce that time substantially. A sail driven by alpha particle recoil, for instance, provides some serious advantages over solar sails, as Wenwu Zhang and colleagues point out in the August issue of Applied Radiation and Isotopes.
Ordinary rocket speed is limited by how fast the combusted fuel can eject exhaust; NASA has investigated a plasma engine design that can attain exhaust speeds of 50 km/s. But that approach requires huge energy input and high voltage, Zhang and colleagues point out (and so would be prohibitively expensive). Alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances, on the other hand, can speed away about 300 times faster. Therefore, Zhang and coauthors assert, “alpha decay particles … may be a potential solution for long-time acceleration in space.”
Usually, of course, a chunk of radioactive matter would emit alpha particles in all directions. So your craft would need a shield on one side to absorb the particles before they got very far. The rest would stream away in the opposite direction, pushing the craft forward (by virtue of the law of conservation of momentum). True, alpha particles are tiny and the effect of their recoil would be small. But it would add up. Shot into space with standard technology (thereby achieving a 16 km/s start-up speed), an alpha recoil spacecraft could eventually reach a speed in the range of 200–300 km/s or so.
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In fact, it’s a pretty safe bet the Chicago Cubs will win the World Series before any human steps foot on Earth’s nearest exoplanetary neighbor (known as Proxima b). Unless P. Centaurian aliens arrive soon with a “To Serve Man” cookbook, your chances of visiting Proxima b before you die are about the same as sainthood for Ted Bundy. By the time anybody from here goes there, years will have five digits.
It took NASA’s New Horizons probe — the fastest spacecraft humans have ever launched — over nine years just to get to Pluto. At its top speed of 16 kilometers per second, New Horizons would need almost 80,000 years to get to Proxima Centauri.
Solar sail propulsion — in which lightweight craft could be accelerated by pressure from sunlight — would be a little be faster, but not by much, taking (by one estimate) 66,000 years to make the Proxima Centauri run.
Novel propulsion schemes have been proposed that could reduce that time substantially. A sail driven by alpha particle recoil, for instance, provides some serious advantages over solar sails, as Wenwu Zhang and colleagues point out in the August issue of Applied Radiation and Isotopes.
Ordinary rocket speed is limited by how fast the combusted fuel can eject exhaust; NASA has investigated a plasma engine design that can attain exhaust speeds of 50 km/s. But that approach requires huge energy input and high voltage, Zhang and colleagues point out (and so would be prohibitively expensive). Alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances, on the other hand, can speed away about 300 times faster. Therefore, Zhang and coauthors assert, “alpha decay particles … may be a potential solution for long-time acceleration in space.”
Usually, of course, a chunk of radioactive matter would emit alpha particles in all directions. So your craft would need a shield on one side to absorb the particles before they got very far. The rest would stream away in the opposite direction, pushing the craft forward (by virtue of the law of conservation of momentum). True, alpha particles are tiny and the effect of their recoil would be small. But it would add up. Shot into space with standard technology (thereby achieving a 16 km/s start-up speed), an alpha recoil spacecraft could eventually reach a speed in the range of 200–300 km/s or so.
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It helps to choose the right alpha-emitting material. Uranium-232 would be ideal. It has a long enough half-life (almost 70 years) to last for an extended voyage, but it also decays into daughter nuclei that emit alpha particles more frequently, boosting the recoil effect. (You won’t find any U-232 in uranium mines, though — it would need to be produced in nuclear transmutation factories.)
Assuming a suitably light and thin absorption material, Zhang and colleagues envision an alpha-powered interstellar sail about 24 meters across. They calculate a travel time to Proxima Centauri between about 4,000 and 9,000 years (depending on the ratio of fuel mass to total spacecraft mass). That would easily win the race against a solar sail, but would far exceed most people’s available vacation time. “Interstellar travel definitely asks for even better propulsion technologies,” Zhang and colleagues understate. And surely within 4,000 years somebody will invent a faster technology that could pass the alpha-decay craft and get to Proxima b first.
Other people already have ideas, as Science News astronomy writer Christopher Crockett noted in his story on the discovery of Proxima b. Philanthropist Yuri Milner recently announced a research project to explore the prospects of sending numerous nanocraft to Proxima Centauri’s neighborhood — the Alpha Centauri triple star system. (Proxima is the third star, presumably in orbit around Alpha Centauri A and B.) That plan envisions wafers weighing about a gram or so carried along by similar-mass light sails propelled by a powerful laser beam. If current technological dreams come true, tiny cameras and lasers on the wafer could capture and transmit information about Proxima b back to Earth.
Supposedly such nanocraft could reach 20 percent of the speed of light, allowing them to reach Proxima Centauri by maybe 20 years after launch. So there’s an outside chance of getting a message back from Proxima b before the Cubs win a World Series. But there’s no hope of hitching a ride on such a wafer, unless, perhaps, you’re a tardigrade.
Even if some futuristic technology permitted building a real ship, say the size of the space shuttle, that could fly 20 percent of the speed of light, it might not be a good idea. Such a ship could, in the wrong hands, become the most devastating weapon ever imagined. Flying 20 percent of light speed, a space shuttle would possess a kinetic energy roughly the equivalent of 1,000 hydrogen bombs (or millions of Hiroshima-sized bombs). Of course, it would be an expensive ship and probably nobody would want to crash it. Unless the people who took it to Proxima Centauri got really mad at the people back on Earth.
➡️ @keep_learning_english
Assuming a suitably light and thin absorption material, Zhang and colleagues envision an alpha-powered interstellar sail about 24 meters across. They calculate a travel time to Proxima Centauri between about 4,000 and 9,000 years (depending on the ratio of fuel mass to total spacecraft mass). That would easily win the race against a solar sail, but would far exceed most people’s available vacation time. “Interstellar travel definitely asks for even better propulsion technologies,” Zhang and colleagues understate. And surely within 4,000 years somebody will invent a faster technology that could pass the alpha-decay craft and get to Proxima b first.
Other people already have ideas, as Science News astronomy writer Christopher Crockett noted in his story on the discovery of Proxima b. Philanthropist Yuri Milner recently announced a research project to explore the prospects of sending numerous nanocraft to Proxima Centauri’s neighborhood — the Alpha Centauri triple star system. (Proxima is the third star, presumably in orbit around Alpha Centauri A and B.) That plan envisions wafers weighing about a gram or so carried along by similar-mass light sails propelled by a powerful laser beam. If current technological dreams come true, tiny cameras and lasers on the wafer could capture and transmit information about Proxima b back to Earth.
Supposedly such nanocraft could reach 20 percent of the speed of light, allowing them to reach Proxima Centauri by maybe 20 years after launch. So there’s an outside chance of getting a message back from Proxima b before the Cubs win a World Series. But there’s no hope of hitching a ride on such a wafer, unless, perhaps, you’re a tardigrade.
Even if some futuristic technology permitted building a real ship, say the size of the space shuttle, that could fly 20 percent of the speed of light, it might not be a good idea. Such a ship could, in the wrong hands, become the most devastating weapon ever imagined. Flying 20 percent of light speed, a space shuttle would possess a kinetic energy roughly the equivalent of 1,000 hydrogen bombs (or millions of Hiroshima-sized bombs). Of course, it would be an expensive ship and probably nobody would want to crash it. Unless the people who took it to Proxima Centauri got really mad at the people back on Earth.
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Forwarded from 🇫🇷Objectif : DELF • DALF • TCF
AMICIF organise les Centres Internationaux Francophones (CIF) — un programme d’immersion culturelle et linguistique en France pour les jeunes du monde entier. C’est une opportunité intense de pratiquer le français, découvrir la culture et rencontrer des jeunes francophones de divers pays.
Le programme est ouvert aux candidats internationaux, {y compris les jeunes citoyens d’Ouzbékistan ou d’autres pays francophones/étudiants motivés. }
Procédure complète :
• Photo récente
• CV / diplômes
• Lettre de motivation en français
• Diplôme attestant niveau de français (B1)
• Lettre de recommandation d’un parrain (non membre de la famille)
• Vidéo de présentation de 3 minutes en français
Pour tout renseignement ou assistance, vous pouvez contacter :
Bonne chance !
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Bad Bunny's Apple Music Super Bowl Halftime ShowOn February 8, 2026, Puerto Rican superstar Bad Bunny headlined the Super Bowl LX Halftime Show at Levi’s Stadium in Santa Clara, California — one of the most viewed live entertainment moments in the world.
This year’s show was officially titled the Apple Music Super Bowl LX Halftime Show, with Apple Music as the main sponsor — covering production costs and promotion in partnership with the NFL.
There were additional celebrity cameos including Pedro Pascal, Cardi B, Karol G, Jessica Alba, Alix Earle, and others who made brief stage appearances and added to the show’s star-studded feel.
The Halftime Show is an annual cultural highlight presented during the NFL’s Super Bowl game — a moment that blends sport, music, and global entertainment for a massive international audience. Bad Bunny’s selection marked historic representation as the first solo Latin male artist to headline, and his set was almost entirely in Spanish, celebrating Latin music, identity, and cultural pride on an enormous platform.
Rather than being paid a traditional performance fee, artists at the Super Bowl halftime typically perform for exposure and cultural impact while Apple Music and the NFL cover production costs.
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What’s in it for me? Learn a whole new language in just a few blinks – the language of weather.
Have you ever left the house after checking your weather app, expecting a full day of sunny weather – only to be drenched later?
Weather forecasts rarely feel spot-on because they rarely talk about the weather you actually experience. Meteorologists are less concerned with telling you whether you need to pack an umbrella than with studying large climate patterns over wide areas. But your weather happens on a much smaller scale. It’s shaped by your immediate surroundings – from buildings and trees to localized winds and rock formations.
But here’s the great news: you can learn to read these patterns.
These blinks reveal the secrets and clues that will help you make more accurate predictions than any computer-driven forecast ever could.
Along the way, you’ll learn
• why it should worry you when clouds blow in different directions;
• why prey animals turn their rear ends to the wind; and
• why summers in the city are so hot.
🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴
Learn to read local microclimates and you’ll be able to predict the weather better than any meteorologist.
The origin story of the weather forecast is not a happy one.
In nineteenth century Britain, Robert FitzRoy, the famous Royal Navy vice admiral who captained Charles Darwin’s voyage on the Beagle, was appointed to the newly established Meteorological Office. FitzRoy was tasked with formalizing earlier, less scientific attempts at predicting the weather. By collecting daily weather data on land and using his own nautical charts, he was able to make more sophisticated and accurate predictions than his contemporaries. He called his predictions “forecasts.”
But many didn’t think weather forecasting was even possible, and FitzRoy paid a high price: whenever his predictions were wrong, the public shamed him so vehemently that he became deeply depressed. In 1865, he took his own life.
Today, meteorologists have many more tools than FitzRoy ever had. Still, we often complain how inaccurate the weather forecast is. Are meteorologists really that bad at their job? Or are we like FitzRoy’s critics, holding them to an unrealistic standard?
Here’s the key message: Learn to read local microclimates, and you’ll be able to predict the weather better than any meteorologist.
🔴 @keep_learning_english
Have you ever left the house after checking your weather app, expecting a full day of sunny weather – only to be drenched later?
Weather forecasts rarely feel spot-on because they rarely talk about the weather you actually experience. Meteorologists are less concerned with telling you whether you need to pack an umbrella than with studying large climate patterns over wide areas. But your weather happens on a much smaller scale. It’s shaped by your immediate surroundings – from buildings and trees to localized winds and rock formations.
But here’s the great news: you can learn to read these patterns.
These blinks reveal the secrets and clues that will help you make more accurate predictions than any computer-driven forecast ever could.
Along the way, you’ll learn
• why it should worry you when clouds blow in different directions;
• why prey animals turn their rear ends to the wind; and
• why summers in the city are so hot.
Learn to read local microclimates and you’ll be able to predict the weather better than any meteorologist.
The origin story of the weather forecast is not a happy one.
In nineteenth century Britain, Robert FitzRoy, the famous Royal Navy vice admiral who captained Charles Darwin’s voyage on the Beagle, was appointed to the newly established Meteorological Office. FitzRoy was tasked with formalizing earlier, less scientific attempts at predicting the weather. By collecting daily weather data on land and using his own nautical charts, he was able to make more sophisticated and accurate predictions than his contemporaries. He called his predictions “forecasts.”
But many didn’t think weather forecasting was even possible, and FitzRoy paid a high price: whenever his predictions were wrong, the public shamed him so vehemently that he became deeply depressed. In 1865, he took his own life.
Today, meteorologists have many more tools than FitzRoy ever had. Still, we often complain how inaccurate the weather forecast is. Are meteorologists really that bad at their job? Or are we like FitzRoy’s critics, holding them to an unrealistic standard?
Here’s the key message: Learn to read local microclimates, and you’ll be able to predict the weather better than any meteorologist.
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Keep Learning English
What’s in it for me? Learn a whole new language in just a few blinks – the language of weather. Have you ever left the house after checking your weather app, expecting a full day of sunny weather – only to be drenched later? Weather forecasts rarely feel…
The reason that our own experience often contradicts the weather report is that meteorologists make their predictions on the macro-level: they consider big weather trends over wide areas. But we experience weather on the micro-level. In a big city, for example, it sometimes rains in one area, but stays completely dry in another. And it’s all down to microclimates.
Microclimates are directly shaped by our environment and its distinct features – whether trees, buildings, hills, or different types of soil. Sometimes, microclimates can vary wildly over just a few meters. Consider the 800-meter-high ridge in the Jura mountains on the border of France and Switzerland. It’s only 50 centimeters wide, but the climate on each side is so different that it’s created two completely distinct ecosystems.
If you’ve ever sought shelter under a tree on a hot day, you’ve already experienced the power of a microclimate. Trees don’t just provide a cooling shadow in summer; any breeze is also stronger around their trunk, thanks to an effect known as the “tree fan.”
Microclimates come with their own clues that even the best meteorologist with the fastest computer can’t fully map. If you want to know what the weather will really be like, you need to know how to read these clues.
And that’s where these blinks come in: they’ll encourage you to pay close attention to the weather signs in your environment and show you how to interpret them – starting with our puffy friends in the sky: the clouds.
🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴 🔴
When it comes to understanding weather trends, clouds are your best friends.
When you want to know what the weather is like, looking at the sky is probably your first instinct – and it’s a good one! Clouds are the first and best indicator of the three major components of weather: air, water, and temperature.
Even if you’re not a nature expert, you could probably recognize a big, dark rain cloud hanging over your head. But there’s a whole art to understanding what Micronesian navigators call the “talk of the skies.”
First, let’s get to know the three big cloud families. There are cirrus, stratus, and cumulus clouds, and all of them tell us different things about weather conditions, in the present and in the future.
The key message here is: When it comes to understanding weather trends, clouds are your best friends.
Cirrus clouds are wispy, icy-white strands high up in the sky that look like feathers, hair, or cotton candy. Sometimes they have the shape of a comma, with a larger head and a trailing tail. The tail is a great indicator of which way the wind above is blowing. The longer it is, the stronger the wind. When cirrus clouds grow longer, thicker, and more numerous, it’s often an early warning of approaching bad weather.
Stratus clouds are flat, wide blankets that cover broad patches of sky. These clouds are slow, and indicate a pretty stable atmosphere. Whenever you have one above you, you can be sure that the weather won’t change for a while. Sometimes, unfortunately, this means a full day of rain.
Cumulus clouds are fluffy and white with big bulges and flat bottoms. Think of the clouds in the opening sequence of The Simpsons. Cumulus clouds form when warm air rises from local heating on the ground. That’s why you often find them over cities, and more often in the afternoon, when the sun has had time to warm the earth.
Because they form through localized heating, cumulus clouds are always a sign that the atmosphere is not quite stable. The taller they are, the greater the instability. And the lower they hang, the higher the humidity in them. When these two things combine, heavy rain showers will likely follow very soon.
There are other variations, but if you can recognize the big three, you’re already well on your way to understanding the talk of the skies. But beware: if you see all three cloud types at once, it’s a sign that the atmosphere is unstable – and bad weather is coming.
🔴 @keep_learning_english
Microclimates are directly shaped by our environment and its distinct features – whether trees, buildings, hills, or different types of soil. Sometimes, microclimates can vary wildly over just a few meters. Consider the 800-meter-high ridge in the Jura mountains on the border of France and Switzerland. It’s only 50 centimeters wide, but the climate on each side is so different that it’s created two completely distinct ecosystems.
If you’ve ever sought shelter under a tree on a hot day, you’ve already experienced the power of a microclimate. Trees don’t just provide a cooling shadow in summer; any breeze is also stronger around their trunk, thanks to an effect known as the “tree fan.”
Microclimates come with their own clues that even the best meteorologist with the fastest computer can’t fully map. If you want to know what the weather will really be like, you need to know how to read these clues.
And that’s where these blinks come in: they’ll encourage you to pay close attention to the weather signs in your environment and show you how to interpret them – starting with our puffy friends in the sky: the clouds.
When it comes to understanding weather trends, clouds are your best friends.
When you want to know what the weather is like, looking at the sky is probably your first instinct – and it’s a good one! Clouds are the first and best indicator of the three major components of weather: air, water, and temperature.
Even if you’re not a nature expert, you could probably recognize a big, dark rain cloud hanging over your head. But there’s a whole art to understanding what Micronesian navigators call the “talk of the skies.”
First, let’s get to know the three big cloud families. There are cirrus, stratus, and cumulus clouds, and all of them tell us different things about weather conditions, in the present and in the future.
The key message here is: When it comes to understanding weather trends, clouds are your best friends.
Cirrus clouds are wispy, icy-white strands high up in the sky that look like feathers, hair, or cotton candy. Sometimes they have the shape of a comma, with a larger head and a trailing tail. The tail is a great indicator of which way the wind above is blowing. The longer it is, the stronger the wind. When cirrus clouds grow longer, thicker, and more numerous, it’s often an early warning of approaching bad weather.
Stratus clouds are flat, wide blankets that cover broad patches of sky. These clouds are slow, and indicate a pretty stable atmosphere. Whenever you have one above you, you can be sure that the weather won’t change for a while. Sometimes, unfortunately, this means a full day of rain.
Cumulus clouds are fluffy and white with big bulges and flat bottoms. Think of the clouds in the opening sequence of The Simpsons. Cumulus clouds form when warm air rises from local heating on the ground. That’s why you often find them over cities, and more often in the afternoon, when the sun has had time to warm the earth.
Because they form through localized heating, cumulus clouds are always a sign that the atmosphere is not quite stable. The taller they are, the greater the instability. And the lower they hang, the higher the humidity in them. When these two things combine, heavy rain showers will likely follow very soon.
There are other variations, but if you can recognize the big three, you’re already well on your way to understanding the talk of the skies. But beware: if you see all three cloud types at once, it’s a sign that the atmosphere is unstable – and bad weather is coming.
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Keep Learning English
The reason that our own experience often contradicts the weather report is that meteorologists make their predictions on the macro-level: they consider big weather trends over wide areas. But we experience weather on the micro-level. In a big city, for example…
The wind we experience is closely shaped by our environment.
Once you start studying clouds, you’ll notice they can move pretty fast. Sometimes they even move in different directions.
Just as there are three types of cloud, there are three types of wind that shape our weather: the ground wind, the main wind, and the high wind.
The high wind is the one that moves the cirrus clouds. It blows so high up that it isn’t much affected by the landscape below. The main wind blows closer to the ground, over wide areas of land. When weather forecasts talk about wind, that’s the one they mean.
But we most often experience ground winds – these are local winds that are strongly shaped by the landscapes they blow through – such as mountains, valleys, buildings, and even small rocks.
The key message here is: The wind we experience is closely shaped by our environment.
Wind is channeled, diverted, sped up, and slowed down by the objects it encounters. Remember the cooling “tree fan” from Blink 1? That’s an example of a ground wind accelerating as it passes a tree. Many local wind effects are so distinct that they have their own name. The tramontane, for instance, is the wind blowing through the gaps of the Alps in the north of Italy.
But where does all this wind come from to begin with? Wind originates when a high pressure air mass – a warm front – clashes with a low pressure air mass – a cool front. The air flows clockwise around high pressure systems and counterclockwise around low pressure systems. So when the two meet, things get turbulent.
When the wind is very strong or changes direction, or when the main wind and the high wind blow in different directions, it’s a sign that the air masses around us are shifting. And whenever that happens, the weather will shift, too. And if the wind shifts from south to north, it’s usually a sign that bad weather is coming.
You’ll find that your surroundings have their own unique wind patterns. As you start to read them, compare what you hear on the weather forecast with what you observe on the ground. When a change in the weather is predicted, study the wind just before. Over time, you might notice that, for example, when the wind blows from the church to the hill instead of the other way around, it starts to rain a couple of hours later. Soon, you won’t need the forecast!
Dew, frost, rain, and snow are closely related weather phenomena.
Many of us prefer our weather warm and dry over cold and wet. So, while we can’t change the weather, knowing when we’re about to get cold or wet might make life a little easier.
There are many different types of cold and wet. In this blink, you’ll learn how to read just a few of them: dew, frost, rain, and snow.
Dew forms when the air around you reaches its dew point. That’s the temperature at which the vapor in the air condenses to water. For that to happen, the air needs to be very humid and the ground very cold. As we’ll see later, these are also the perfect ingredients for fog – which is why dew and fog often go together.
The key message is: Dew, frost, rain, and snow are closely related weather phenomena.
When it’s so cold that dew freezes, or the vapor in the air freezes right away, we get frost. If you follow frost through a landscape, you’ll find it thins out under trees and on higher ground, and certain plants have more than others. That’s because of the small temperature changes you get with different heights, substances, and wind conditions.
So, dew and frost form when moist air comes into contact with cold ground. Their cousins, rain and snow, form when moist air comes into contact with the cold at high altitudes. This means that the bottom of a cloud marks the point where the air is cold enough to reach its dew point.
There are two types of rain cloud. Cumulonimbus are big, dark clouds of the cumulus family. They create short but intense rain showers that can be highly localized. Their most important feature is that they’re taller than they are wide. And the taller they are, the more intense the rain.
Once you start studying clouds, you’ll notice they can move pretty fast. Sometimes they even move in different directions.
Just as there are three types of cloud, there are three types of wind that shape our weather: the ground wind, the main wind, and the high wind.
The high wind is the one that moves the cirrus clouds. It blows so high up that it isn’t much affected by the landscape below. The main wind blows closer to the ground, over wide areas of land. When weather forecasts talk about wind, that’s the one they mean.
But we most often experience ground winds – these are local winds that are strongly shaped by the landscapes they blow through – such as mountains, valleys, buildings, and even small rocks.
The key message here is: The wind we experience is closely shaped by our environment.
Wind is channeled, diverted, sped up, and slowed down by the objects it encounters. Remember the cooling “tree fan” from Blink 1? That’s an example of a ground wind accelerating as it passes a tree. Many local wind effects are so distinct that they have their own name. The tramontane, for instance, is the wind blowing through the gaps of the Alps in the north of Italy.
But where does all this wind come from to begin with? Wind originates when a high pressure air mass – a warm front – clashes with a low pressure air mass – a cool front. The air flows clockwise around high pressure systems and counterclockwise around low pressure systems. So when the two meet, things get turbulent.
When the wind is very strong or changes direction, or when the main wind and the high wind blow in different directions, it’s a sign that the air masses around us are shifting. And whenever that happens, the weather will shift, too. And if the wind shifts from south to north, it’s usually a sign that bad weather is coming.
You’ll find that your surroundings have their own unique wind patterns. As you start to read them, compare what you hear on the weather forecast with what you observe on the ground. When a change in the weather is predicted, study the wind just before. Over time, you might notice that, for example, when the wind blows from the church to the hill instead of the other way around, it starts to rain a couple of hours later. Soon, you won’t need the forecast!
Dew, frost, rain, and snow are closely related weather phenomena.
Many of us prefer our weather warm and dry over cold and wet. So, while we can’t change the weather, knowing when we’re about to get cold or wet might make life a little easier.
There are many different types of cold and wet. In this blink, you’ll learn how to read just a few of them: dew, frost, rain, and snow.
Dew forms when the air around you reaches its dew point. That’s the temperature at which the vapor in the air condenses to water. For that to happen, the air needs to be very humid and the ground very cold. As we’ll see later, these are also the perfect ingredients for fog – which is why dew and fog often go together.
The key message is: Dew, frost, rain, and snow are closely related weather phenomena.
When it’s so cold that dew freezes, or the vapor in the air freezes right away, we get frost. If you follow frost through a landscape, you’ll find it thins out under trees and on higher ground, and certain plants have more than others. That’s because of the small temperature changes you get with different heights, substances, and wind conditions.
So, dew and frost form when moist air comes into contact with cold ground. Their cousins, rain and snow, form when moist air comes into contact with the cold at high altitudes. This means that the bottom of a cloud marks the point where the air is cold enough to reach its dew point.
There are two types of rain cloud. Cumulonimbus are big, dark clouds of the cumulus family. They create short but intense rain showers that can be highly localized. Their most important feature is that they’re taller than they are wide. And the taller they are, the more intense the rain.
Keep Learning English
The reason that our own experience often contradicts the weather report is that meteorologists make their predictions on the macro-level: they consider big weather trends over wide areas. But we experience weather on the micro-level. In a big city, for example…
Stratonimbus are wide, gray clouds that create rain blankets which can last for hours. They’re shaped by broader weather patterns, such as when a warm and cold front collide.
The same clouds are responsible for snow – it just needs to be cold enough for the rain drops to freeze, and stay frozen as they fall to the ground. The colder it gets, the smaller and drier the snowflakes become – until you get the very fine, powdery snow you sometimes find in deep winter.
Animals and plants can help complete our picture of local weather conditions
Have you heard the old lore that cows lie down before it’s about to rain?
Throughout the centuries, farmers and scientists have tried to predict the weather by studying the behavior of animals.
Sadly, the cow thing isn’t really true. Cows lie down whenever they want. But many animals do react to the weather in specific ways, and can provide us with plenty of clues for our predictions.
One of the simplest, scientifically proven links between animals and weather is that spiders spin smaller webs when it’s windy. Other animals react to the wind, too.
Here’s the key message: Animals and plants can help complete our picture of local weather conditions.
🔴 @keep_learning_english
The same clouds are responsible for snow – it just needs to be cold enough for the rain drops to freeze, and stay frozen as they fall to the ground. The colder it gets, the smaller and drier the snowflakes become – until you get the very fine, powdery snow you sometimes find in deep winter.
Animals and plants can help complete our picture of local weather conditions
Have you heard the old lore that cows lie down before it’s about to rain?
Throughout the centuries, farmers and scientists have tried to predict the weather by studying the behavior of animals.
Sadly, the cow thing isn’t really true. Cows lie down whenever they want. But many animals do react to the weather in specific ways, and can provide us with plenty of clues for our predictions.
One of the simplest, scientifically proven links between animals and weather is that spiders spin smaller webs when it’s windy. Other animals react to the wind, too.
Here’s the key message: Animals and plants can help complete our picture of local weather conditions.
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WATERMELON! DELICIOUS AND HEALTHY!
🍉 The liquid easily quenches thirst. The rest of the fruit's space is occupied by easily digestible sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), vitamins, and microelements. The main components of watermelon are vitamin C, B vitamins (mostly B1 and B2), vitamin PP, and folic acid. As for the predominant microelements, they include potassium and magnesium.
🍉 It has a number of valuable properties - cholagogue, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, laxative, and febrifuge. Regular consumption enhances intestinal peristalsis and normalizes metabolism.
🍉 Watermelon is used in therapeutic nutrition for anemia, atherosclerosis, hypertension, liver diseases, gallstones and urinary tract stones, arthritis, gout, and obesity.
🍉 By removing excess fluid from the body, watermelon helps get rid of a few unnecessary kilograms. There are practically no proteins and fats in watermelon flesh, but there are many carbohydrates, which are quickly broken down and provide energy.
🔴 @keep_learning_english
🍉 The liquid easily quenches thirst. The rest of the fruit's space is occupied by easily digestible sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), vitamins, and microelements. The main components of watermelon are vitamin C, B vitamins (mostly B1 and B2), vitamin PP, and folic acid. As for the predominant microelements, they include potassium and magnesium.
🍉 It has a number of valuable properties - cholagogue, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, laxative, and febrifuge. Regular consumption enhances intestinal peristalsis and normalizes metabolism.
🍉 Watermelon is used in therapeutic nutrition for anemia, atherosclerosis, hypertension, liver diseases, gallstones and urinary tract stones, arthritis, gout, and obesity.
🍉 By removing excess fluid from the body, watermelon helps get rid of a few unnecessary kilograms. There are practically no proteins and fats in watermelon flesh, but there are many carbohydrates, which are quickly broken down and provide energy.
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