ክፍል 5...

📍Fifth፡ don’t be afraid to mark your text – use different colored highlighters for particularly important parts, but don’t defeat the purpose of highlighting by overdoing it.

📍Sixth፡ outline the chapter: When you have read the chapter through, go back and take notes. Define terms, draw diagrams, and explain things in your own words. Make up memory tricks to help you remember new terms. For example, if you are studying the part of the brain called the “hippocampus” you may use a memory trick of association, picturing a “hippo” with a good memory, since the hippocampus deals with memory formation.

📍Seventh፡ draw arrows or other symbols to direct you to important details or definitions. If a word appears that you do not know, look it up and write the definition in the margin. Underline key points.

The End

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📚FORGETTING

📖Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting

በየለት ህይወታችን ብዙዎቻችን የተለያዩ ነገሮችን እንረሳለን፦ የሰው ስም፣ ሰዎች የነገሩን ነገር፣ ስልክ ቁጥር...ይሄ ስለምንድነው ካላችሁ?
በየቀኑ ብዙ information encode, store እናረጋለን ይህንን ሁሉ ለማስታወስ ከፈለግን ችግር ውስጥ እንገባለን😊 ስለዚህ we are selective in storing and forgetting information.

Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to "the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory."
'apparent' ማለት ግልፅ የሆነ እንደ ማለት ነው። አንድ ነገር ሙሉ በሙሉ ትዝ ሳይለን ሲቀር 'መርሳት' እንሏለን።

The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus.
ይሄ ሰውዬ ስለforgetting ሲያጠና በራሱ ላይ ነበር Experiment የሰራው።👌
ዝምብሎ እስኪ አስታውሳለሁ ወይስ እረሳለሁ የሚለውን check ለማድረግ ሶስት ፊደል ያላቸውን meaningless word ወሰደ እነሱም:- FIW እና BOZ
እና he found that forgetting occurred systematically. ማለትም 👉The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and particularly in the first hour. 👉After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines little, even after the passage of many days.
ሰው አንድን ነገር encode እና store ካረገ በኃላ ቶሎ ረሳ ከተባለ በ1ሰዓት ውስጥ ነው ሚረሳው፣ ነገር ግን ከ9ሰዓት በኃላ የforgetting rateኡ ይቀንሳል።

Theories of Forgetting

🌷Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for forgetting.

1⃣The Decay Theory

The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not accessed now and then.
🌷ይሄ Theory ከስሙ እንደምትረዱት "አንድን ነገር ደግመን ደጋግመን ትኩረት ካልሰጠነው፣ #በጊዜ ሂደት ሊረሳ ይችላል። indirectly በአይምሮአችን ውስጥ ያለው Physical የሆነው (Engram/trace) መልኩን መልቀቀ ወይም fade ማረግ ሲጀምር ነው Forgetting የሚከሰተው ብሎ ነው የሚያምነው ይሄ Theory.

ግን ሰው የሚረሳው ከጊዜ የተነሳ ብቻ አይደለም፣ ሰው አንድ ነገር በተለያየ መንገድ/ምክንያት ሊረሳ ይችላል።👇👇

2⃣Interference
🔖is an explanation for forgetting in long term memory, which states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories.

🌷አያቹ አ ይሄ ደግሞ የሚለው ሰው የሚረሳው ቀድሞ በውስጡ የነበረውና አዲስ Encode ያደረገው ነገር እርስ በእርስ ሲገጩበት ነው።

There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:
For Eg. When old phone numbers confuse with the new ones.

📍Proactive interference
Occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.
I think እንግሊዘኛው በጣም ግልፅ ነው።

📍Retroactive interference
Occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.

ይሄም የገባችሁ ይመስለኛል

3⃣Displacement Theory
🔖This Theory Holds that new information entering memory can wipe out old information.
🌷ይሄ ደግሞ ሰው እንዴት ነው ሚረሳው ለሚለው መልሱ "አዲስ የገባው መረጃ ቀድሞ የነበረውን ሲተካው ነው።" ብሎ ነው።

📌አይምሮው ብዙ ነገር በአንድ ጊዜ መያዝ ስለማይችል እየተተካካ ነው መሄድ ያለበት ይላል። ይላል ይሄ theory😁 እና This theory is mostly associated with the STM [Short Term Memory]..LTM ከሆነ ስህተት ነው ምክንያቱም የLTM Capacity Unlimited ነው፤ Unlimited ከሆነ ደግሞ replacemet ሚባል ነገር የለም።

4⃣Motivated Foretting
🔖Is what Freud referred to as repressing memories. According to Freud, there are times when an event or an action is so painful that we can't deal with the memory of it, so we repress the memory completely.

🌷ይሄ ማለት ደግሞ ማስታወስ ያልፈለጋቹት ነገር በውስጣችሁ አምቃችሁ(repress) በመያዝ በራሳችሁ ፍላጎት ነገሩን ልትረሱ ትችላላችሁ።
📌Freud ይሄንን self-protective process Repression ብሎ ይጠራዋል።
ለምሳሌ እኔ አሁን Mosheን እርሱት Moshe የሚለውን ስም ለመርሳት ማድረግ ያለባችሁን ሁሉ አድርጉና እርሱት ብዬ የቤት ስራ ብስጣችሁና ነገ በዚህ ሰዓት ከረሳችሁት ይሄ Motivated Forgetting ይባላል።

ምንም ቢሆን የማትረሱት ነገርስ😂

5⃣Cue Dependent Forgetting
🔖is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded.

🌷ይሄ ደግሞ ምን መሰላችሁ "ሰው አንድ ነገር የሚረሳው ቀድሞ ነገሩን Encode ሲያረግ በዙሪያው የነበረው ምልክት (Cue) አሁን ላይ ካሌለ ነው።" ቆይ በምሳሌ ላስረዳችሁ students would sometimes forget what they had studied before an exam. This occurs because of the examination room's environmental conditions are different to the room or place where learning occurred.
Green area ያለበት ቦታ አጥንታችሁ ግን ከዚያ ስትሄዱ እዚያ ያጠናችሁት ነገር ሊጠፋባችሁ ይችላል፣ ለምን ከተባለ ከgreen areaው(Cue) ቦታ ስለሄዳችሁ።

📌ሌላ ምሳሌ ጫት🌿(cue) እየቃማችሁ ያጠናችሁት ነገር ከጫቱ የራቃችሁ ዕለት የምትረሱት ከሆነ ይህ Cue Dependent Forgetting ይባላል። ይሄ ምሳሌ ለድሬ ተማሪዎች በደንብ ይገባችኋል😂

📌Likewise, if your emotional arousal is specially high or low at the time of an event, you may remember that event best when you are once again in the same emotional state.

Improving Memory

የመርሳት ችግር ያለባችሁ ልጆች የሚከተለውን አንብባችሁ ተግብሩት😃

📍Pay Attention ትኩረት🌞
📍Encode information in Multiple ways
📍Add Meaning to the material
📍Take Your time: minimize interference by using study breaks አንዳንዴ ደግሞ ተኙ ለሽ🤩
📍Over learn: እያነበባችሁ ያላችሁትን ነገር ከዚህ በፊት እንደምታውቁት እያሰባቹት ስታነቡ የማስተወስ አቅማችሁ ይጨምራል።
📍Monitor Your Learning እናንተው እራሳችሁ ለራሳችሁ ሃለቃ ወይም መሪ ሆናችሁ፣ እራሳችሁን ገምግሙ፣ etc.

እነዚህ ከብዙ በጥቂቱ ሞጁሉ ላይ የተጠቀሱት ናቸው፣ ሌሎች ተጨማሪ ከፈለጋችሁ internet ላይ Search አድርጋችሁ ማየት ትችላላችሁ።😊

በቀጣይ Chapter 5 እንቀጥላለን!
ደህና ሁኑ!😊

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Are you ready🙌

እንደ ምትሰሩት ተስፋ አለኝ።

ፈተናውን የሚደፍን ሽልማት ሊኖረው ይችላል!😊

🖌📋ዝግጁ


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Psychology Mid Exam
[A+ Tutorial Class]

Read the following statements Carefully and Write True or False.

1. Sensory Adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it.

2. A reinforcement is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to occur.

3. The decay Theory holds that the Trace simply fades away with nothing left behid, due to passage of time.

4. Over learn is one of the ways to improve memory.

5. Retrieval occurs when information is brought to mind from storage.

Choose the best Answer

6. Which of the following is not organizing principle of Perception?
A. Proximity
B. Continuation
C. Law of Closure
D. Convergence

7. Which of the following is correct about Retinal disparity?
A. It is the degree of difference between the image of an object that are focused on thee single retina.
B. It's one of the monocular cues
C. The Closer the Object, the greater is the retinal disparity
D. It is two dimensional perception

8. From the following, One is Not Correct About Learning?
A. Learning is responsive to incentives
B. Learning is Pervasive
C. Learning is Multifaceted
D. Learning is a Passive Process

9. A Stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned is called:
A. Conditioned Stimulus
B. Unconditioned Stimulus
C. Neutral Stimulus
D. Unconditioned Response

10._____________is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
A. Stimulus generalization
B. Extinction
C. Spontaneous recovery
D. Stimulus Discrimination

11. If someone nags you all the time to stud, but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to increase-because you will then avoid nagging. This implies
A. Negative punishment
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Positive punishment
D. Postive reinforcement

12. Which schedule of reinforcement is often used by Employers to increase productivity?
A. Variable ratio schedule
B. Fixed interval schedule
C. Fixed ratio schedule
D. Variable interval schedule

13. Short term memory is
A. Active
B. Rapid accessibility
C. Limited capacity
D. All Except B

14. Which of the following responses is not learned through operant conditioning?
A. Shelly gets $50 after getting a 90 percent in her math class.
B. A pigeon learns to peck a disc to get food pellets.
C. A dog learns to turn in circles for a reward.
D. A baby takes his fi rst steps.
E. A horse jumps over a fence to avoid an electric shock

15. Which of the following statements best explains one major difference between short-term memory and long-term memory?
A. Long-term memory is unlimited in capacity while short-term memory is not.
B. Long-term memory holds only episodic memories while short-term memory does not.
C. Long-term memory varies a great deal from one person to another, while short-term memory does not.
D. In terms of processing, long-term memory comes directly after sensory memory while short-term memory does not.
E. Long-term memory depends on neural connections in the limbic system while short-term memory does not.

Give the Correct Answer for the following

16. Write the factors that are important that are important for the effectiveness of Punishment

17. What are four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else according to Bandura

18. What is a Serial Position effect

19. According to George Miller the stimated capacity of Short Term Memory is to be the magic number________

20. Suppose a oneyear old child is playing with a toy near an electrical outlet. He sticks part of the toy into the outlet. He gets shocked, becomes frightened, and begins to cry. For several days after that experience, he shows fear when his mother gives him the toy and he refuses to play with it. What is

a) UCS(Unconditioned stimulus)_____________

b) UCR(Unconditioned
Response) _________

c) CS(Conditioned Stimulus)_______________

d) CR(Conditioned Response)______________

መልስ ለመላክ👇
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እነ #Abdi_የጂማው, #No_Peace_No_war, Raøl #Aşšè£a, #🔱Yit, #Doyo_Arero, #Dan ሁላችሁም ጎበዞች😍😍

ሰዓቱ ቢያልቅም አሁንም መሞከር ትችላላችሁ!

ችግርየለውም የቻላችሁትን ያህል ሰርታችሁ ላኩ😊

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#Answer

1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True
6.D
7.C
8.D
9.B
10.C
11.B
12.C
13. No answer
14.D
15.A
16. Immediacy, Consistency and Intensity

17. Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Motivation

18. Is the ability to remember(recall) the first(primacy effect) and the last(recency effect)...

19. 7plus or minus 2

20. a. Electric shock
b. Frighten and cry
c. Toy
d. Fear (Frighten and cry)

Any ቅሬታ on😎👇

Plus ፈተናውን እንዴት አያችሁት share idea👇
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Geography For Trial
(1st year chapter 3)👇

Logic True/ False

1. In an inductive argument, it is intended that the conclusion contain more information than the premises

✅True

2. In a deductive argument, the conclusion is not supposed to contain more information than the premises

✅True

3. The form of argumentation the arguer uses may allow one to determine whether an argument is inductive or deductive.

✅True

4. The actual strength of the link between premises and conclusion may allow one to determine whether an argument is inductive or deductive.

✅True

5. A geometrical proof is an example of an inductive argument.

✅False

6. Most arguments based on statistical reasoning are deductive.

✅False

7. If the conclusion of an argument follows merely from the definition of a word used in a premise, the argument is deductive

✅True

8. An argument that draws a conclusion about a thing based on that thing's similarity to something else is a deductive argument.

✅False

9. An argument that draws a conclusion that something is true because someone has said that it is, is a deductive argument.

✅False

10. An argument that presents two alternatives and eliminates one, leaving the other as the conclusion, is an inductive argument

✅False

11. An argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause to knowledge of an effect is an inductive argument

✅True

12. If an argument contains the phrase "it definitely follows that," then we know for certain that the argument is deductive

✅False

13. An argument that predicts what will happen in the future, based on what has happened in the past, is an inductive argument.

✅True

14. Inductive arguments always proceed from the particular to the general.

✅False

15. Deductive arguments always proceed from the general to the particular.

✅False

#Share👇👇👇
@preparatorystudent
@preparatorystudent

ሰላም እንዴት ናችሁ😊

Psychology course Chapter 5 መድረሳችን የሚታወስ ነው። ኖቱን ልለቅላችሁ ጥረት ባደርግም፣ ምንም አልሆነልኝም፣ ማለትም ጊዜ አልበቃኝም🙏 ስለዚህ Chapter 5 እና 6ን ከተለያየ Source ያገኘውትን soft copy ከላይ Attach አድርጌላቿለው። እነሱን አንብቡ! ያልገባችሁን ደግሞ ጠይቁ፣ ከቻልኩ በድምፅ እመልሳለሁ😊

Logic መምህራችሁ ደግሞ የት እንደጠፋባችሁ አላቅም😁 እሱም በቅርቡ እንደሚመጣ ተስፋ አለኝ።

በተረፈ እንወዳችዋለን፣ በርቱልን፣ ጊዜያችሁን በአግባቡ ተጠቀሙ፣ ይቺን First Semister ሙቱባት፣ እንቅልፍ ከዚያ በኃላ ይደርሳል፣ መዝናናት ከዚያ በኃላ ይደርሳል።👍

©A+ Tutorial Class

ስለ fallacy ዝና ሰምተዋል❓

🙌 ሰላም የ A+ tutorial Class ቤተሰቦች እንዴት ናችሁ ፡ ፈተና እንዴት ነው❓

😊 እንደሚታወቀው የ Logic Chapter 1 እና Chapter 2 ን ተምረናል።

📚 በተለይ Chapter 2 mid exam በብዛት ስለሚወጣበት ሰፊ ሽፋን በመስጠት ፡ ጥሩ ገለፃ ለማድረግ ሞክረናል። ትምህርቱንም እንደወደዳችሁት ብዙዎቻችሁ ነግራችሁናል። ለ Mid Exam ብዙ እንደጠቀማችሁም እርግጠኛ ነኝ😎 ።

😕 ነገር ግን ጊዜ ስላልተመቻቸልኝ የ Chapter 3 እና Chapter 4 ኖቶችን አዘጋጅቼ መልቀቅ አልቻልኩም። ይቅርታ እጠይቃለሁ🚶‍♂።

😊 አሁን ላይ ደግሞ final exam እየተቃረበ ነው።

😋 Fallacy(Chapter 5) ደግሞ በጣም ብዙ ጥያቄ ነው የሚወጣበት።

😎 ስለዚህ እኔም ያለችኝን ጊዜ አጣብቤ ለ final exam የሚጠቅሟችሁን እጅግ መሰረታዊ የሆኑ ፅንሰ ሀሳቦችን በመዳሰስ final exam ን በ ልበ ሙሉነት ተፈትናችሁ አሪፍ ውጤት ታመጡ ዘንድ ደፋ ቀና እንላለን።

😊 ስለዚህ ጓደኞቻችሁ ፡ የ ዶርማችሁ ልጆች እንዲመዘገቡ እና ትምህርቱ እንዲያገኙ አድርጉ። በ እርግጠኝነት ለ ፈተና የሚያዘጋጁአችሁ ግልፅ እና ጠቃሚ የሆኑ ሀሳቦችን እንዳስሳለን።

😊ገና ብዙ እንጓዛለን።

© A+ Tutorial Class.

Fallacy Note እንደሚከተለው ይቀርባል፣ ኖቶቹ እጥር ምጥን ያሉ ናቸው፣ በችኮላ ነው የተፃፉት ግን እንደሚገባችሁ ተስፋ አለኝ😊

በተጨማሪ በኖቱ ውስጥ ምሁራዊ ቃላቶች ተካቷል፦ ህፀፅ፣ አመክንዮ፣ ግድፈት፣ ተዋረድ ምናምን😂 በዚያው አማርኛንም ትለምዳላችሁ!

አንብባችሁ ከጨረሳችሁ በኃላ ጥያቄ ምናምን Randomly እንለቃለን። Fallacy መጀመሪያ Conceptኡን መረዳት ከዚያ የተለያዩ ጥያቄዎችን በደንብ መስራትን ይጠይቃል።

ደህና ሁኑ😇

አስተያይትና ጥያቄ👇
@Ucan_scorebot

📚CHAPTER 5

📖INFORMAL FALLACIES

🔖What is Fallacy?

A fallacy, in most general terms, is an error or defect or mistake commited in arguments.
ብዙዎች "Fallacy" የሚለውን ቃል "ህፀፅ" በሚለው ይተረጉሙታል፣ ነገር ግን ቃሉን በደንብ ግልፅ የሚያደርገው ትርጉም "በአመክንዮ/በምክንያታዊነት አስተሳሰብ የሚከሰት ስህተት፣ ስህተት የማይመስሉ ነገር ግን ሰዎችን የሚያስቱ.."

🔖Depending on the kind of the problems or defects they contain, (i.e., the problems or defects that make them fallacious), arguments may commit either a formal or an informal fallacy. As a result, they are often grouped in two:

Formal fallacies and
Informal fallacies

📌Formal Fallacy is When an argument contains a #structural defect or problem and violates the standard form of a good argument.
📌ይህ ማለት በሃሳባቸው የተዋረድ ስርዓት ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ስህተቶች ማለት ነው።
የአረፍተ ነገሮቹና የቃላቶቹ አቀማመጥ ብቻ አይተን መለየት የምንችላቸው ናቸው።

እስኪ ቀጣዩን ምሳሌ ተመልከቱ👇
All Freshmans are Clevers.
Therefore, All Clevers are Freshmans.

አያቹ አ ይሄ አሁን Structural defect አለበት። ሁሉም ፍሬሽማን ጎበዝ ነው ማለት ሁሉም ጎበዝ ፍሬሽማን ነው ማለት አይደለም።

ስለዚህ Formal Fallacyን እንዲሁ አይታችሁ መለየት ትችላላችሁ! ደግሞ ያልነገርኳችሁ "formal fallacy are only found in Deductive Argument." እነ Categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive syllogism formal fallacyን Commit ሊያረጉ ይችላሉ።

እስኪ ሌላ ምሳሌ ልጨምርላችሁ👇
All Elephants are animals.
All mammals are animals.
Therefore, all elephants are mammals.

እንዲህ አይነቱን አሁን በቀላሉ informal fallacy መሆናቸውን የArgumentኡን Structure ብቻ በመመልከት መለየት ትችላላችሁ።

📚INFORMAL FALLACIES

📖Is a fallacy, which is committed due to a defect in the very content of an argument, other than in its structure of form.

Informal fallacies cannot be identified through mere inspection of the form or structure of the argument.

"Informal Fallacy"ን በአማርኛ ስንተረጉመው "በቃላቶቹና በአረፍተ ነገሮቹ መዋቅር ሳይሆን #ይዘታቸውን በመመርመር ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ግድፈቶች ማለት ነው።

Informal fallacyዎች በብዛት ትክክለኛ Argument ይመስላሉ፣ ሰዎችን የማሳመን ኃይል አላቸው ነገር ግን ስህተት ናቸው።

እስኪ አንድ የinformal fallacy ምሳሌ እንመልከት [ከሞጁሉ የተወሰደ]👇

All factories are plants.
All plants are things that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll.

ሲታይ ትክክለኛ argument ይመስላል አ? ነገር ግን አይደለም! " Plant" የሚለው Word የመጀመሪያውና የሁለተኛው Sentence ውስጥ የተጠቀመበት Context አንድ አደለም! የመጀመርያው ላይ Plant ማለት "ተመሰረተ፣ ተተከለ( ለቤት፣ ለፋብሪካ..)"
የሁለተኛው ላይ Plant ማለት ችግኝ ማለት ነው።
ስለዚህ Formኡ እንዲህ ሊሆን ይችላል👇
All A are B.
All B are C.
------------------
Therefore, All A are C.

አያቹ አ በደንብ ካላስተዋላችሁት informal fallacyን ለመለየት ትንሽ ከባድ ነው።

Now a day, more than 100 fallacies have been invented. Now let's see some of them.
መጀመሪያ ግልፅ እንዲሆንላችሁ ከታች የተለቀቀውን Photo ተመልከቱ

1⃣Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments in which the premise is logically irrelevant to establish the conclusion. (Except missing the point)

In this fallacy, although the premise is logically irrelevant, #Psychologically it could be relevant to the conclusion.
ማለትም the connection between premises and conclusion is emotional. Such arguments are often called non sequiturs ወይም Argumentative leaps ተብሎ ይጠራሉ።

መረጃ ሀሳቡ ከመደምደሚያው ጋር አግባብነት ካሌለው Fallacy of Relevance ይባላል።

በምስሉ እንዳያችሁት እዚህ ስር ስምንት(8) fallacies of relevance እናያለን።

1. Appeal to Force
[Argumentum Ad Baculum]

📍Occurs when an arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.

ይሄ "ማስረጃ በማቅረብ ከማሳመን ይልቅ በዛቻ ተቀባይነት ለማግኘት የሚደረግ የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።"

እስኪ እቺን ምሳሌ እዪአት: አባት ለልጁ:-

"My boy, you must study hard, if not you will be either a criminal or a beggar."

🔖This fallacy always involves a threat by the arguer to the physical or psychological well- being of the listener.
NB: ነገር ግን Argumentኡ በውስጡ ዛቻና ማስፈራራት ስለያዘ ብቻ Appeal to Force ነው ማለት አንችልም።

2. Appeal to Pity
[Argumentum ad misericordiam]

Is committed when one is persuaded to accept the conclusion because of pity or sympathy.

ይህ ደግሞ ማስረጃ ከማቅረብ ይልቅ #በማሳዘን የሚፈለገውን ለማግኘት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው። ከappeal to force የሚለየው:-

📍ያኛው በማስፈራራት ነው[Force] ይህኛው ደግሞ በማሳዘን [pity] ነው።
📍ያኛው በሰሚው ወይ በአንባቢው ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት ይናገራል ይህኛው ደግሞ በባለቤቱ ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት [unfortunate consequence] ይናገራል።

እስኪ አንድ ምሳሌ እንውሰድ👇
A weak student to his instructor

"Pr

Professor, hear me once please. I should deserve at least a B in this course. If I do not, I will be in Prohibition and total lose of moral courage to attend other courses."

3. Appeal to People
[Argumentum ad Populum]

Is committed whenever anyone urging the acceptance of a claim by arousing strong feelings that may leaf audiences to accept the claim without a logical justigication of it.

ይህ ደግሞ የህዝብን ስሜት በማነሳሳት የፈለጉትን ለማሳካት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።

Two approaches are involved in appeal to people fallacy:
📍direct and
📍indirect.

🔖The direct approach occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.

ለምሳሌ እነ Hitler የህዝቡን ስሜት በማነሳሳትና በመቀስቀስ ነበር በሁዝቡ የዘረኝነትን መርዝ ከረጨ በኃላ የዚያ ሰው ሁሉ እልቂት የተፈፀመው።

🔖In the indirect approach, the arguer aims his or her appeal not at the crowd as a whole but at one or more individuals separately.

ይህ ደግሞ ለግለሰቦች የሚቀርብ ማባበያ ነው። There are Three forms of indirect approach

📍Appeal to Bandwagon
Emphasizes that the majority's choice is a correct one and urges audiences to join them
ይህ ማለት "አብዛኛው ሰው ተቀብሎታልና አንተም ተቀበለው" ማለት ነው።

Eg. " Many Freshman Students study in library so, Studying in library is the best for freshman students"

📍Appeal to Vanity
በችሎታቸው ዝኘኛ የሆኑ ሰዎች ስለሚጠቀሙበት አንተም ብትጠቀምበት የዝነኞቹ ክብር ይኖረሃል።

Eg. "Who is going to wear this new fashion dress, a dress worn by the famous Aster Awoke in her New Year's Sheraten Hotel's Show?"

📍Appeal to Snobbery

የተከበሩ ሰዎችን መጥቀስ ወይም ለሌሎች #የበላይ (Superior) የመሆን ፍላጎት

Eg. "The newly produced Malt Guiness is not for everyone to drink. But you are different from other people, aren't you? Therefore, the newly malt guiness is for you.

🔖In Birhanu direct and indirect approach to appeal to the people fallacy the arguer targeted on exploiting strong emotions of the people.

4. Argument against The Person
[Argumentum Ad Hominem]

Is Usually committed by discrediting (damaging the good reputation of a person) for the purpose of criticizing the arguments forwarded by the person.

የግለሰብን ማንነት በማጥቃት የቀረበውን ሀሳብ ውድቅ ለማድረግ ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

There are three types of the fallacy of Ad hominem

📍Ad Hominem Abusive Fallacy

Is committed when we engage in abusive remarks about the person and use them as a ground for rejecting the person's claim.
አንድን የቀረበ ሃሳብ መቃወም ሲፈለግ ማስረጃ አቅርቦ ከመቃወም ይልቅ የዚያን ሰው ስብዕና በማጉደፍ የሚቀርብ የስህተት ትችት ነው።

ይቺን ምሳሌ እዩአት👇

Eg. "Hailu's idea that there is life after death should be discounted; since he was regularly treated in Emmanuel Hospital-a hospital that treats individuals having personality disorders."

📍Ad Hominem Circumstantial Fallacy

This fallacy inferes that "A claim the person makes is false because somebody in that position could be expected to make such claims."

ይህ ከግለሰቡ ጋር የሚገናኙ ሁኔታዎችን በመጥቀስ ሀሳቡን ውድቅ ለማድረግ መሞከር ነው።

Eg. "We heard the saying of Getachew that 'Freedom is that we yearn (የምንናፍቀው)for Centuries in Ethiopia. But it could not yet to be achieved.' But Getachew's idea should be rejected, because he is one of the leaders of opposition parties."
አሁን Getachew 'በኢትዮጵያ ውስጥ ነፃነት የለም' ያለው የተፎካካሪ/የተቃራኒ Party አባል ስለሆነ ነው ብለን ብንደመድም ስህተት ነው።

📍Ad Hominem tu quoque

This fallacy is committed when we say that a person's clam is false because it's contrary with something else the person has said or done before.

Tu quoque ማለት "You also", "you did it, too" ማለት ነው።

የራስን ስህተት ለመሸፈን የሌላውን ስህተት መጥቀስ ነው።

ለምሳሌ እናት: ልጄ አትስረቅ ሌብነት ጥሩ አይደለም።
ልጅ: እንዴ እኔን እንዴት አትስረቅ ቲይኛለሽ? ባለፈው ከአባቴ ስር ብር ስትሰርቂ በአይኔ በብረቱ አላየሁሽምን

5. Accident

is committed when a general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover.

ለምሳሌ: "ማንኛውም ሰው የማውራት መብት አለው፣ ስለዚህ ፕሮፌሰር ከበደ ባለፈው ስለ ኢትዮጵያ መንግስት ስላወረው ነገር መታሰር አልነበረበትም።"

6. Straw Man Fallacy

This Fallacy is committed when some one opposes an opponen'ts ot other's opinion and presents in its place a distorted, oversimplified, misrepresented and exaggerated version for the purpose of making it easier to attack the opponenent's position.

የተናጋሪውን ወይም የፃፊውን ሀሳብ በማጋነን ወይም በማጣጣል ለትችት እንዲመች በማድረግ መቃወም ነው።

The basic structure of the argument consists of Person A making a claim, Person B creating a distorted version of the claim (the “straw man”), and then Person B attacking this distorted version in order to refute Person A’s original assertion.

ይቺን ምሳሌ ስትመለከቱ በደንብ ግልፅ ይሆንላችኋል😊

example, imagine a husband and a wife are trying to decide whether they should adopt a dog or a cat.

Wife: I'd rather have a dog than a cat.

Husband: Why do you hate cats?

The wife never said that she hated cats, only that she preferred dogs. The husband either assumed or pretended that her argument was against cats instead of for dogs. Now the wife must argue that she doesn't hate cats — which completely changes the course of the discussion[ወደ red herring fallacy ይመራናል]. 

7. Missing the point
[Ignoratio elenchi]

This fallacy is caused when the argument has a problem of the logical imlplication of the premise and draws the conclusion that which is not a right conclusion.

ይሄ በመረጃ ሀሳቡ መሠረት ትክክለኛውንና ተገቢ የሆነ መደምደሚያ ሃሳብ ላይ መድረስ አለመቻል ወይም ግብን መሳት ማለት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Ababa University has lots of problems. Students services and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are inexperienced. It follows that; the University should be entirely closed."

አያቹ አ የደረሰበትን Conclusion..ከመረጃዎቹ ተነስቶ "ብዙ ጉድለት ስላለበት ይዘጋ።" ማለቱ Fallacy ነው።

8. The Red Herring Fallacy
[Off the track fallacy]

This fallacy occurs when we instead of trying to prove or disprove others views some one attempts to change the subject.

It can also be called "Diversion".

በአጭሩ ማስቀየስ ማለት ነው። ተናጋሪው ባነሳው ሀሳብ መሠረት አንድ መደምደሚያ ሀሳብ ላይ እንዳይደረስ ሲፈለግ ከተነሳው ጉዳይ ጋር የማይገናኝ ሀሳብ በማንሳት የመጀመሪያውን ሃሳብ መቃወም ማለት ነው።

Eg. "Teferi: Do you know, that Almaz has got "A"🤩 in logic.
Asfaw: You knows that she always wears a miniskirts and she attracts teachers with her half-naked body. That is it🤷‍♂ and not her own effort. So, scoring "A" is not a kind of grade that sh

e deserves for."

በቀጣይ Fallacies of Weak Induction እናያለን

ሰላም ሁኑ🤗

አስተያይትና ጥያቄ👇
@Ucan_Scorebot

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