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๐Ÿ™Œ แ‰ฐแ‹ˆแ‹ณแŒ†แ‰ฝ แˆ†แ‹ญ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ฝแˆ แ‰ แŠ แ‹ซแˆŒแ‹โ€ผ๏ธ

แŒแ‰ข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แАแ‹โ“ แ‰ตแˆแˆฎแˆตโ“

๐Ÿ˜˜From the bottom of our heart แŠจ แˆ˜แˆแŠซแˆ แ‹จแˆ†แА แˆแˆ‰ แˆตแŠฌแ‰ต แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแ‹ซแŒ…แ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แˆแŠžแ‰ณแ‰ฝแŠ• แАแ‹โ€ผ๏ธ

๐Ÿ‘ฉโ€๐Ÿซ๐Ÿ‘จโ€๐Ÿซ แ‰  แАแŒˆแˆฎแ‰ฝ แŠ แˆˆแˆ˜แˆ˜แ‰ปแ‰ธแ‰ต แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ต แˆˆ แ‰ฐแ‹ˆแˆฐแŠ‘ แˆณแˆแŠ•แ‰ณแ‰ต แ‹จแ‰ฒแ‰ถแˆญแ‹ซแˆ แ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ฑ แˆ˜แ‰‹แˆจแŒก แ‹จแˆšแ‰ณแ‹ˆแ‰… แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ™‹โ€โ™‚๐Ÿ™‹โ€โ™€ แŠฅแŠ“แŠ•แ‰ฐแˆ แ‰ แ‹แˆตแŒฅ แˆ˜แˆตแˆ˜แˆญ แ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ฑ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแ‰€แŒฅแˆ แŒฅแ‹ซแ‰„แ‹Žแ‰ฝแŠ• แˆตแ‰ณแ‰€แˆญแ‰ก แАแ‰ แˆญแข แ‰ฅแˆญ แŠฅแŠ•แŒจแˆแˆญ แŠฅแŠ“ แ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ฑ แ‹ญแ‰€แŒฅแˆ แ‹ซแˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแˆ แŠ แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแข แ‰ฅแˆญ แˆ˜แŒจแˆ˜แˆฉ แŠ• แˆณแ‹ญแˆ†แŠ• แ‹จแˆแŠ•แˆแˆแŒˆแ‹ แ‹จแˆแŠ•แˆˆแ‰…แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆ แŠ–แ‰ต แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแŒˆแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แก แˆˆแˆแ‰ฐแŠ“ แˆ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแ‹ซแŒแ‹›แ‰ฝแˆ แก A+ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแ‰ณแˆ˜แŒก แŠฅแŠ“ internalize แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ตแ‰ณแ‹ฐแˆญแŒ‰แ‰ต แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ™ แˆแŠ•แˆ แŠฅแŠ•แŠณ แŠฅแŠ“แŠ•แ‰ฐแŠ• แˆ›แˆตแ‰ฐแˆ›แˆญ แ‰ฃแ‹ญแŒˆแ‰ฃแŠ•แˆ แŠ แ‰…แˆ›แ‰ฝแŠ• แ‰ แˆแ‰€แ‹ฐ แก แˆแˆ‰ แˆˆแˆ˜แˆญแ‹ณแ‰ต แ‹แŒแŒ แАแŠ•แข

๐Ÿ‘ฉโ€๐Ÿ’ผ๐Ÿ‘จโ€๐Ÿ’ผ แŠจแˆฐแˆžแŠ‘ แ‹จแ‰ฒแ‰ถแˆญแ‹ซแˆ แ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ฑแŠ• แŠซแ‰†แˆแŠ•แ‰ แ‰ต แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆแŠ•แŒ€แˆแˆญ แˆตแŠ“แ‰ แˆตแˆซแ‰ฝแˆ แก แŠ แˆซแ‰ต แ‹ญแ‹ž แŠ แˆแˆตแ‰ต แ‰ แˆ›แ‹ซแŒ แ‹ แ‰ณแˆ‹แ‰… แˆ€แˆดแ‰ต แАแ‹แข

แŠจแˆฐแˆžแŠ‘ แ‹ญแŒ แ‰ฅแ‰แŠ•โ€ผ๏ธ

แ‰ฐแ‹ˆแ‹ณแŒ†แ‰ฝ แˆ†แ‹ญ แˆแŠ• แŠ แˆแ‰ฃแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ˜แŒ€แˆ˜แˆชแ‹ซแ‹Žแ‰นแŠ• quizzes or tests แ‰ แˆแ‰ตแˆแˆแŒ‰แ‰ต แˆ˜แˆแŠฉ แˆ‹แ‰ตแˆฐแˆฉ แ‰ตแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแข แ‰ แ‹šแˆ… แ‰ฅแ‹™แˆ frustration แŠ แ‹ญแˆฐแˆ›แ‰ฝแˆแข

๐Ÿคทโ€โ™‚ แŠจแŠฅแŠ“แŠ•แ‰ฐ แ‹จแˆšแŒ แ‰ แ‰€แ‹ แ‰ฅแˆแŒฅ แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‰ฅแ‰ป แАแ‹แข แ‹จแˆ˜แˆแˆ…แˆฎแ‰นแŠ• แ‹จแˆแ‰ฐแŠ“ แŠ แ‹ˆแŒฃแŒฅ แˆตแА แˆแ‰ฆแŠ“ แˆ˜แˆจแ‹ณแ‰ต แ‰ฅแ‰ป แАแ‹๐Ÿคทโ€โ™€แข

๐Ÿค” แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แ‹จแ‰ฐแˆฐแŒฃแ‰ฝแˆแ‰ต course outline แˆ‹แ‹ญ objectives แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ทแ‰ธแ‹โ—๏ธแ‰ แ‹จ unit แ‰ถแ‰น แ‹ซแˆ‰แ‰ตแŠ• subtopic แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ทแ‰ธแ‹โ—๏ธ that is it๐Ÿ˜‰แข

A+ can be merely caught โ€ผ๏ธ

ยฉA+ tutorial class.
๐Ÿ‘‰ แŠฅแŠ•แˆตแˆณแ‰ถแ‰ฝ cell wall แŠ แˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹แข แ‹ญแˆ… แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŒแŠ• cell wall แ‹ซแˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹ แ‰ แˆ™แˆ‰ แŠฅแŠ•แˆตแˆณแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แ‹แˆป cell wall แŠ แˆˆแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แ‹จแŒแ‹ต แŠฅแŠ•แˆตแˆณแ‰ต แАแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแก แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ cell wall แ‹ซแˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹ แ‰ แˆ™แˆ‰ แŠฅแŠ•แˆตแˆณแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แˆตแˆ‹แˆ‹แ‹ฐแˆˆแข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… invalid
แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ‘† แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ false premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต invalid argument แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข

๐Ÿ“š False premises and false conclusion.

แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆแАแ‹ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแˆแˆ conclusion แŠ‘ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆแŠ– argument แ‰ฑ valid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ invalid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข แˆแˆณแˆŒ

๐ŸŒ€ Example 1

All human beings are immortal.
Plants are human beings.
Therefore, plants are immortal.

๐Ÿ‘†Valid แАแ‹แข

๐ŸŒ€Example 2

All human beings are immortal.
Cats are immortal.
Therefore, cats are human beings.

๐Ÿ‘† Invalid แАแ‹แข


๐Ÿ“šSoundness

There are two types of deductive arguments.

๐Ÿ“1) Sound deductive argument or sound argument.

๐Ÿ“2) Unsound deductive argument or unsound argument.

แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… deductive argument แŠ• sound แŠฅแŠ“ unsound แ‰ฅแˆŽ แˆ˜แŠญแˆแˆ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ แˆ˜แˆแˆจแŒ… soundness แ‹ญแ‰ฃแˆ‹แˆแข

๐Ÿ˜Ž แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แˆแˆˆแ‰ฑแŠ•แˆ แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ณแ‰ธแ‹แข

๐Ÿ“š Sound argument - is a type of deductive argument that is valid and has all factually true premises.

Sound argument แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต argument แ‰ฑ valid แ‹จแˆ†แА แŠฅแŠ“ แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แŠ‘แข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ…๐Ÿ˜Ž

แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument sound แˆˆแˆ˜แ‰ฃแˆ แˆแˆˆแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆฎแ‰ฝแŠ• แ‰ แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆณแˆณแ‹ญ แŒŠแ‹œ แˆ›แˆŸแˆ‹แ‰ต แŠ แˆˆแ‰ แ‰ตแข

๐ŸŽˆ1แŠ›) valid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠ แˆˆแ‰ แ‰ต
๐ŸŽˆ2แŠ›) แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠ แˆˆแ‰ แ‰ตแข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ…๐Ÿ˜Ž

๐Ÿ“š Sound argument = valid argument + true premises.

แˆแˆณแˆŒแ‹Žแ‰ฝแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแก

๐ŸŒ€Example 1

All planets revolve around the sun.
Earth is a planet.
Therefore, Earth revolves around the sun.

๐Ÿ‘† Sound แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ตโ“

แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ argument แ‰ฑ valid แАแ‹ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแˆแˆ แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข

แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต valid แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆ†แА แˆ›แˆตแˆจแ‹ณแ‰ต แŠ แ‹ญแŒ แ‰ แ‰…แ‰ฅแŠแˆ แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ validity แŠ• แ‰ฐแˆจแ‹ตแ‰ณแ‰ฝแˆแ‰ณแˆ แ‹ญแˆ˜แˆตแˆˆแŠ›แˆแข

๐Ÿ“š Unsound argument - is a type of deductive argument that is invalid.

๐Ÿ“š Unsound argument - is a type of deductive argument that is valid but the premises are factually false.

Unsound argument แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต invalid argument แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแˆแˆ

Unsound argument แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต valid argument แˆแŠ– แАแŒˆแˆญ แŒแŠ• แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แŠ‘แข

๐ŸŒ€ Example 1

All Ethiopians are Egyptians.
Biniyam is an Ethiopian.
Therefore, Biniyam is an Egyptian.

๐Ÿ‘† Argument valid แАแ‹ แข แАแŒˆแˆญ แŒแŠ• All Ethiopians are Egyptians แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ premises แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แАแ‹แข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… argument แ‰ฑ unsound แАแ‹แข

๐ŸŒ€Example 2

All human beings are mortal.
Cats are mortal.
Therefore, cats are human beings.

๐Ÿ‘† Argument แ‰ฑ invalid แАแ‹แข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… unsound แАแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แАแ‹แข

แŠฅแˆบ แ‹จแ‹›แˆฌแ‹ แŠญแˆ‹แˆต แ‰ แ‹šแˆ… แŠ แ‰ แ‰ƒ๐Ÿ‘แข แˆˆแˆ›แŒ แ‰ƒแˆˆแˆ แ‹ซแˆ…แˆแก

๐Ÿ“š Validity is determined by the inferential link between the premises and the conclusion.

๐Ÿ“š Soundness is determined by both the inferential link and the factual link between the premises and the conclusion.

๐Ÿ‘‡๐Ÿ‘‡แŠจแ‰ณแ‰ฝ แŽแ‰ถ แˆˆแ‰…แ‰„แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆ—แˆˆแˆแข

ยฉA+ tutorial class.
๐Ÿ˜Š แŠ แˆแŠ• แ‹ฐแŒแˆž validity แ‰  actual truth or falsity of the premises and the conclusion แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆ›แ‹ญแ‹ˆแˆฐแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

๐Ÿ“š True premises and true conclusion.

๐ŸŒท แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แŠ‘ premises แŠฅแŠ“ แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แА conclusion แ‹จแ‹ซแ‹˜ deductive argument valid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ invalid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แˆแˆณแˆŒแ‹Žแ‰ฝแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ต แก

๐ŸŒ€Example 1

All human beings are mortal. Pr.minister Abiy Ahmed is a human being. It follows that pr.minister Abiy Ahmed is mortal.

แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ฑ แ‹ญแˆ…แŠ• แˆแˆณแˆŒ๐Ÿฅบ

All human beings are mortal แŠฅแŠ“ Pr.Minister Abiy Ahmed is a human being แ‹จแˆšแˆ‰แ‰ต แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ premises แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข แˆแˆˆแ‰ฑแˆ แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข

Pr.Minister Abiy Ahmed is Mortal แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ˜Š แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… Argument แ‰ฑ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แАแ‹ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‹แข

๐Ÿ˜Ž Argument แ‰ฑ valid แАแ‹ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆต invalid แАแ‹โ“

๐Ÿ˜‹ Valid แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ตโ“

๐Ÿ‘‰แˆแˆ‰แˆ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ†แ‰ฝ แˆŸแ‰ฝ แŠจแˆ†แŠ‘แข
๐Ÿ‘‰แŒ /แˆšแŠ’แˆตแ‰ตแˆญ แŠ แ‰ฅแ‹ญ แŠ แˆ…แˆ˜แ‹ต แˆฐแ‹ แŠจแˆ†แАแข
๐Ÿ‘‰แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แŒ /แˆšแŠ’แˆตแ‰ตแˆญ แŠ แ‰ฅแ‹ญ แŠ แˆ…แˆ˜แ‹ต แˆŸแ‰ฝ แАแ‹แข

แŒ /แˆšแŠ’แˆตแ‰ตแˆญ แŠ แ‰ฅแ‹ญ แŠ แˆ…แˆ˜แ‹ต แˆŸแ‰ฝ แАแ‹ แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆแˆแข แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แŠ แ‰ฅแ‹ญ แŠ แˆ…แˆ˜แ‹ต แ‰  แˆแˆ‰แˆ แ‹จ แˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ†แ‰ฝ แ‹แˆตแŒฅ แАแ‹ แ‹จแˆšแŠซแ‰ฐแ‰ฐแ‹แข แˆแˆ‰แˆ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ†แ‰ฝ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แˆŸแ‰ฝ แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข

๐Ÿ‘†แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต Deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต valid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข

๐Ÿ™Œ แŠฅแˆบ แŠ แˆแŠ• แ‹ฐแŒแˆž deductive argument แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต invalid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆšแ‰ฝแˆ แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

๐ŸŒ€Example 2

All beers are beverages. แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ is a beverage. Therefore, แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ is a beer.

All beers are beverages แŠฅแŠ“ แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ is a beverage แ‹จแˆšแˆ‰แ‰ต premises แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข

แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ is a beer แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Š แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ˜Š แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… argument แ‰ฑ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แАแ‹ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‹แข

๐Ÿ˜Ÿ Argument แ‰ฑ valid แАแ‹โ“ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆต invalid แАแ‹โ“

๐Ÿ˜Ž invalid แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ตโ“

แŠฅแ‹šแŒ‹ แ‹จแˆšแ‹ซแˆแ‰ณแ‰ณ แ‹ญแˆ˜แˆตแˆ‹แˆแข แ‰กแˆ—แˆ‹ แˆ‹แ‹ญ แŽแˆญแˆ™แˆ‹แ‹แŠ• แŠฅแАแŒแˆซแ‰ฝแˆ—แˆˆแˆแข แˆˆแŠ แˆแŠ‘ แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฒแˆ แŠฅแŠ“แ‰ฅแˆซแˆซแ‹แข แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ฑ

๐Ÿ‘‰ แˆแˆ‰แˆ แ‰ขแˆซแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฆแ‰ฝ แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข แ‹ญแˆ… แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŒแŠ• แˆแˆ‰แˆ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฆแ‰ฝ แ‰ขแˆซ แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแข
๐Ÿ‘‰ แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฅ แАแ‹แข แ‰ณแ‹ฒแ‹ซ แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ แ‹จแ‰ฐแ‰ฃแˆˆแ‹ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฅ แ‰ขแˆซ แˆ‹แ‹ญแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แˆแˆ‰แˆ แ‰ขแˆซแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฅ แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹ แŠฅแŠ•แŒ‚ แˆแˆ‰แˆ แˆ˜แŒ แŒฆแ‰ฝ แ‰ขแˆซ แˆตแˆ‹แˆแˆ†แŠ‘แข

๐Ÿ‘‰ แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ is a beer แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… invalid แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ˜‚ แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแŠฎ แ‹ณแˆฝแŠ• แ‰ขแˆซ แŠฅแŠฎ แ‰ขแˆซ แАแ‹๐Ÿ™„แข แŒแŠ• validity แ‹จแˆšแ‹ˆแˆฐแАแ‹ แ‰  premises แŠฅแŠ“ แ‰  conclusion แˆ˜แŠซแŠจแˆ แ‰ฃแˆˆแ‹ แ‹จแˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ณแ‹ŠแАแ‰ต แ‹แˆแ‹ตแŠ“ แАแ‹ แŠฅแŠ•แŒ‚ premises แŠฅแŠ“ conclusion แ‰ฃแˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Š แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ณ แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแข

๐Ÿ‘†แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต argument แ‰ฑ invalid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข

๐Ÿ“š True premises and false conclusion.

๐Ÿ˜Š แŠฅแˆบ แŠ แˆแŠ• แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‰  แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แŠ‘ แŠฅแŠ“ conclusion แŠ‘ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แА deductive argument แŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แˆ›แˆตแˆจแŒƒแ‹Žแ‰น(premises) แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แˆแАแ‹: แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž conclusion แŠ‘ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แŠจแˆ†แА argument แ‰ฑ แˆแˆแŒŠแ‹œแˆ แ‰ขแˆ†แŠ• invalid แАแ‹แข valid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆแˆแข

๐Ÿ‘†แ‹ซแ‹™แ‰ต แˆแ‰ฐแŠ“ แˆ‹แ‹ญ แˆตแˆˆแˆšแ‹ˆแŒฃแข

แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แˆแˆณแˆŒ แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

๐ŸŒ€Example

All beers are beverages.
Coca Cola is a beverage.
Therefore, Coca Cola is a beer.

๐Ÿ‘† แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ true premises แŠฅแŠ“ false conclusion แАแ‹ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‹แข invalid แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ“š False premises and true conclusion.

โญ๏ธ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แА premises แŠฅแŠ“ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แ‹จแˆ†แА conclusion แ‹จแ‹ซแ‹˜ deductive argument valid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž invalid แˆŠแˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข แŠฅแˆตแ‰ฒ แˆแˆณแˆŒแ‹Žแ‰ฝแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

๐ŸŒ€Example 1

human being is not mammal.
Hens are human beings.
Therefore, Hens are not mammals.

๐Ÿฅบ แŠ แˆแŠ• แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ฑ

๐Ÿ˜Š All human beings are not mammals แŠฅแŠ“ Hens are human beings แ‹จแˆšแˆ‰แ‰ต premises แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข แˆแˆˆแ‰ฑแˆ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹ แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ… แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แАแ‹ แŠฅแŠ“ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‹ถแˆฎ แˆฐแ‹ แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆ๐Ÿ˜‚แข

Hens are not mammals แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แАแ‹แข แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แ‹ถแˆฎ แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆ‰แˆแข

๐Ÿค” แ‰ณแ‹ฒแ‹ซ Argument แ‰ฑ valid แАแ‹ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆต invalidโ“

๐Ÿ˜Ž Valid แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต๐Ÿค”โ“

แ‰ฐแˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ฑ แก

๐Ÿ‘‰ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ… แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแข
๐Ÿ‘‰ แ‹ถแˆฎ แ‹จ แˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ… แŠ“แ‰ตแข
๐Ÿ‘‰ แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แ‹ถแˆฎ แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแ‰ฝแˆแข

๐Ÿ˜Š แ‹ถแˆฎ แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแ‰ฝแˆ แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆแˆแข แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แ‹ถแˆฎ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ… แŠ“แ‰ต แก แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆแŒ… แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆ แก แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แ‹ถแˆฎ แŠ แŒฅแ‰ข แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแ‰ฝแˆแข

๐Ÿ‘† แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Š แŠ แˆˆแˆ false premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต valid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข

๐Ÿค— แŠฅแˆบ แŠ แˆแŠ• แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต deductive argument แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ false premises แŠฅแŠ“ true conclusion แŠ‘แˆฎแ‰ต invalid แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆšแ‰ฝแˆ แŠฅแŠ•แˆ˜แˆแŠจแ‰ตแข

๐ŸŒ€Example 2

Animals have cell wall.
Dogs have cell wall.
Therefore, dogs are animals.

Animals have cell wall แŠฅแŠ“ dogs have cell wall แ‹จแˆšแˆ‰แ‰ต premise แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข แˆแˆ‰แ‰ฑแˆ แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แข แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แŠฅแŠ•แˆตแˆณแ‰ถแ‰ฝ แ‹แˆปแŠ• แŒจแˆแˆฎ cell wall แ‹จแˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹แˆแข

Dogs are animals แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‰ แАแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Šแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแˆ แŠฅแ‹แАแ‰ต แАแ‹แข

แ‰ณแ‹ฒแ‹ซ argument แ‰ฑ valid or invalidโ“

๐Ÿ˜Š Invalid แАแ‹แข แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ตโ“

Dogs are animals แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ conclusion แ‹แˆธแ‰ต แˆ˜แˆ†แŠ• แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แก
แˆฐแˆ‹แˆ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ฝแˆแˆแŠ•๐Ÿ˜Š

แˆแ‰ฐแŠ“ แŠฅแ‹จแ‹ฐแˆจแˆฐแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แАแ‹‹แฃ แŠฅแŠ•แŒแ‹ฒแˆ… แ‰ แ‹ฐแŠ•แ‰ฅ แŠ แŒฅแŠ‘แข

แˆˆแˆšแ‰€แŒฅแˆ‰แ‰ต แŠ แˆแˆตแ‰ต แ‰ฐแŠจแ‰ณแ‰ณแ‹ญ แ‰€แŠ“แ‰ต แ‹จแˆšแ‰†แ‹ญ "แ‹จแŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แ‰ฝแˆŽแ‰ณแŠ“ แˆแˆ›แ‹ตแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แˆ›แ‹ณแ‰ แˆญ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆแŠ•แ‰ฝแˆ" แŠฅแŠ“แ‹ซแˆˆแŠ•แข

๐Ÿ“Œแˆ›แŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แˆแŠ• แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆ†แА?
๐Ÿ“Œแ‰ แ‹ฐแŠ•แ‰ฅ แ‹จแˆšแ‹ซแŒ แŠ“ แˆฐแ‹ แ‰ฃแˆ…แˆชแ‹ซแ‰ต
๐Ÿ“ŒแŒแˆ‹แ‹Š แ‹จแˆ˜แˆ›แˆชแ‹ซ แˆ˜แŠ•แŒˆแ‹ถแ‰ฝ
๐Ÿ“Œแˆ˜แ‰ผ แŠฅแŠ“แŒฅแŠ“
๐Ÿ“ŒแŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แŠฅแŠ“แŒฅแŠ“

แŠฅแАแ‹šแˆ…แŠ• แŠ แŒ แˆญ แŠ แŒ แˆญ แŠ แ‹ตแˆญแŒˆแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆˆแ‰ƒแˆˆแŠ•แฃ แ‰ แŒฃแˆ แˆตแˆˆแˆšแˆจแ‹ณแ‰ฝแˆ แŠ แŠ•แ‰ฅแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แ‰ฐแŒแ‰ฃแˆซแ‹Š แ‰ฅแ‰ณแ‹ฐแˆญแŒ‰แ‰ต แˆ˜แˆแŠซแˆ แАแ‹แข

แ‹ญแˆ…แŠ• แ‰ แ‰ปแŠ“แˆ‰ แˆŠแ‹ซแˆตแ‰ฐแˆ‹แˆแ แ‹จแˆแˆˆแŒˆ แˆฐแ‹ แˆ˜แŒ€แˆ˜แˆชแ‹ซ แŠ แ‹ตแˆšแŠ–แ‰นแŠ• แˆ›แˆตแˆแ‰€แ‹ต แŠ แˆˆแ‰ แ‰ตแข

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
แ‹จแŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แ‰ฝแˆŽแ‰ณแŠ“ แˆแˆ›แ‹ตแŠ• แ‰ แˆ›แ‹ณแ‰ แˆญ แˆˆแ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ณแ‹Š แˆแŠฅแ‰€แ‰ต แˆ˜แˆตแˆซแ‰ต
(getting excellent by developing effective studying habits.)

แŠญแแˆ 1

๐Ÿ”–แˆ›แŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แˆแŠ•แ‹ตแАแ‹‰?๐Ÿ˜Š(what is studying?)
๐Ÿ“แŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แ‰ฝแˆŽแ‰ณ แАแ‹‰แข(studying is a skill.)

๐Ÿ“แ‰ฝแˆŽแ‰ณ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‰ แˆตแˆซ แ‹จแˆšแˆ˜แŒฃ แŠฅแŠ•แŒ‚ แ‹จแˆšแˆฐแŒฅ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ แŠ แˆˆแŠ แ‹จแˆแŠ•แˆˆแ‹‰ แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแข

๐Ÿ“แ‰ฐแˆ›แˆช แ‰ แ‰ตแˆแˆ…แˆญแ‰ฑ แˆแ‰† แˆˆแˆ˜แŒˆแŠ˜แ‰ต แ‹จแŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แ‰ฝแˆŽแ‰ณแ‹‰แŠ• แˆ›แ‹ณแ‰ แˆญ แŠฅแŠ“ แˆแˆ›แ‹ฑ แˆ›แ‹ตแˆจแŒ แŠ แˆˆแ‰ แ‰ตแข
(in order to be successful learn studying skills, practice them and develop effective
study habits)

๐Ÿ”–Good study habits include different skills:

- time management
(แŒŠแ‹œแŠ• แ‰ฃแŒแ‰ฃแ‰ก แˆ˜แŒ แ‰€แˆ)
- self-discipline
(แ‰ แˆตแˆญแ‹“แ‰ต แˆ˜แˆ˜แˆซแ‰ต)
- concentration
(แˆ›แˆตแ‰ฐแ‹‹แˆ)
- memorization (แˆ›แˆตแ‰ณแ‹ˆแˆต)
- organization
(แˆ›แ‰€แŠ“แŒ€แ‰ต(
- effort
(แ‰ตแŒ‹แ‰ต/แŒฅแˆจแ‰ต)

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
๐Ÿ‘1
แŠญแแˆ 4

แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แŠฅแŠ“แŒฅแŠ“?(how to study?)

๐Ÿ“Firstแก preview the chapter. Look at headings, subheadings, topic sentences, boldfaced and italicized words, pictures, diagrams, graphs, summaries, and review questions at the end.
Secondแก ask yourself questions about the subheadings.

๐Ÿ“Thirdแก read a section of the chapter (one subheading at a time). Put the book down and ask yourself what you just read. Did you understand what it was about? Could you answer questions about it? Could you explain it to someone else? Continue reading and stopping to think about what you just read. Ask yourself questions.

๐Ÿ“Fourthแก donโ€™t skip any part of the chapter. Read the sidelines, the captions under photos, definitions, and any additional information the author has included. Itโ€™s all there to help you learn.

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
แŠญแแˆ 3

แˆ˜แ‰ผ แŠฅแŠ“แŒฅแŠ“?

โœ… แŠจแŠญแˆ‹แˆต แ‰ แŠแ‰ต
:
แŠญแˆ‹แˆต
:
โœ… แŠจแŠญแˆ‹แˆต แ‰ แŠ‹แˆ‹
:
โœ… แŠจแˆแ‰ฐแŠ“แ‰ แŠแ‰ต

๐Ÿ”–แ‹จแŒฅแŠ“แ‰ต แŒŠแ‹œแŠ“ แ‰ฆแ‰ณแŠ• แ‰ แŠ แŒแ‰ฃแ‰ก แˆ›แ‹˜แŒ‹แŒ€แ‰ต (Organizing time and place to study)

Time: (แŒŠแ‹œ)

๐Ÿ“Œ Plan your study time. Leave enough time for each of your
๐Ÿ“Œ subjects and more time for difficult subjects. Plan to study 2hr for 1hr class every day 1:30hr for 40min class.
๐Ÿ“Œ Prioritize your time and put off other activities to allow for adequate study time.
๐Ÿ“Œ Be sure to plan extra time for long study sessions before tests

๐Ÿ”–Place:(แ‰ฆแ‰ณ)

๐Ÿ‘‰ Study in an area that is set up for serious study.
๐Ÿ‘‰Have your tools for study: notebooks, textbooks, pens, pencils, computer, dictionary, thesaurus, etc.
๐Ÿ‘‰choose a place free from noise and distractions but not too comfortable
๐Ÿ‘‰ Try to study in the same place everyday.

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
แŠญแแˆ 5...

๐Ÿ“Fifthแก donโ€™t be afraid to mark your text โ€“ use different colored highlighters for particularly important parts, but donโ€™t defeat the purpose of highlighting by overdoing it.

๐Ÿ“Sixthแก outline the chapter: When you have read the chapter through, go back and take notes. Define terms, draw diagrams, and explain things in your own words. Make up memory tricks to help you remember new terms. For example, if you are studying the part of the brain called the โ€œhippocampusโ€ you may use a memory trick of association, picturing a โ€œhippoโ€ with a good memory, since the hippocampus deals with memory formation.

๐Ÿ“Seventhแก draw arrows or other symbols to direct you to important details or definitions. If a word appears that you do not know, look it up and write the definition in the margin. Underline key points.

The End

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
๐Ÿ“šFORGETTING

๐Ÿ“–Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting

แ‰ แ‹จแˆˆแ‰ต แˆ…แ‹ญแ‹ˆแ‰ณแ‰ฝแŠ• แ‰ฅแ‹™แ‹Žแ‰ปแ‰ฝแŠ• แ‹จแ‰ฐแˆˆแ‹ซแ‹ฉ แАแŒˆแˆฎแ‰ฝแŠ• แŠฅแŠ•แˆจแˆณแˆˆแŠ•แฆ แ‹จแˆฐแ‹ แˆตแˆแฃ แˆฐแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แ‹จแАแŒˆแˆฉแŠ• แАแŒˆแˆญแฃ แˆตแˆแŠญ แ‰แŒฅแˆญ...แ‹ญแˆ„ แˆตแˆˆแˆแŠ•แ‹ตแАแ‹ แŠซแˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆ?
แ‰ แ‹จแ‰€แŠ‘ แ‰ฅแ‹™ information encode, store แŠฅแŠ“แˆจแŒ‹แˆˆแŠ• แ‹ญแˆ…แŠ•แŠ• แˆแˆ‰ แˆˆแˆ›แˆตแ‰ณแ‹ˆแˆต แŠจแˆแˆˆแŒแŠ• แ‰ฝแŒแˆญ แ‹แˆตแŒฅ แŠฅแŠ•แŒˆแ‰ฃแˆˆแŠ•๐Ÿ˜Š แˆตแˆˆแ‹šแˆ… we are selective in storing and forgetting information.

Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to "the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory."
'apparent' แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แŒแˆแ… แ‹จแˆ†แА แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แАแ‹แข แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แˆ™แˆ‰ แ‰ แˆ™แˆ‰ แ‰ตแ‹ แˆณแ‹ญแˆˆแŠ• แˆฒแ‰€แˆญ 'แˆ˜แˆญแˆณแ‰ต' แŠฅแŠ•แˆแˆˆแŠ•แข

The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus.
แ‹ญแˆ„ แˆฐแ‹แ‹ฌ แˆตแˆˆforgetting แˆฒแ‹ซแŒ แŠ“ แ‰ แˆซแˆฑ แˆ‹แ‹ญ แАแ‰ แˆญ Experiment แ‹จแˆฐแˆซแ‹แข๐Ÿ‘Œ
แ‹แˆแ‰ฅแˆŽ แŠฅแˆตแŠช แŠ แˆตแ‰ณแ‹แˆณแˆˆแˆ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆต แŠฅแˆจแˆณแˆˆแˆ แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹แŠ• check แˆˆแˆ›แ‹ตแˆจแŒ แˆถแˆตแ‰ต แŠแ‹ฐแˆ แ‹ซแˆ‹แ‰ธแ‹แŠ• meaningless word แ‹ˆแˆฐแ‹ฐ แŠฅแАแˆฑแˆ:- FIW แŠฅแŠ“ BOZ
แŠฅแŠ“ he found that forgetting occurred systematically. แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ตแˆ ๐Ÿ‘‰The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and particularly in the first hour. ๐Ÿ‘‰After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines little, even after the passage of many days.
แˆฐแ‹ แŠ แŠ•แ‹ตแŠ• แАแŒˆแˆญ encode แŠฅแŠ“ store แŠซแˆจแŒˆ แ‰ แŠƒแˆ‹ แ‰ถแˆŽ แˆจแˆณ แŠจแ‰ฐแ‰ฃแˆˆ แ‰ 1แˆฐแ‹“แ‰ต แ‹แˆตแŒฅ แАแ‹ แˆšแˆจแˆณแ‹แฃ แАแŒˆแˆญ แŒแŠ• แŠจ9แˆฐแ‹“แ‰ต แ‰ แŠƒแˆ‹ แ‹จforgetting rateแŠก แ‹ญแ‰€แŠ•แˆณแˆแข

Theories of Forgetting

๐ŸŒทPsychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for forgetting.

1โƒฃThe Decay Theory

The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not accessed now and then.
๐ŸŒทแ‹ญแˆ„ Theory แŠจแˆตแˆ™ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆแ‰ตแˆจแ‹ฑแ‰ต "แŠ แŠ•แ‹ตแŠ• แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‹ฐแŒแˆ˜แŠ• แ‹ฐแŒ‹แŒแˆ˜แŠ• แ‰ตแŠฉแˆจแ‰ต แŠซแˆแˆฐแŒ แАแ‹แฃ #แ‰ แŒŠแ‹œ แˆ‚แ‹ฐแ‰ต แˆŠแˆจแˆณ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข indirectly แ‰ แŠ แ‹ญแˆแˆฎแŠ แ‰ฝแŠ• แ‹แˆตแŒฅ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‹ Physical แ‹จแˆ†แАแ‹ (Engram/trace) แˆ˜แˆแŠฉแŠ• แˆ˜แˆแ‰€แ‰€ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ fade แˆ›แˆจแŒ แˆฒแŒ€แˆแˆญ แАแ‹ Forgetting แ‹จแˆšแŠจแˆฐแ‰ฐแ‹ แ‰ฅแˆŽ แАแ‹ แ‹จแˆšแ‹ซแˆแАแ‹ แ‹ญแˆ„ Theory.

แŒแŠ• แˆฐแ‹ แ‹จแˆšแˆจแˆณแ‹ แŠจแŒŠแ‹œ แ‹จแ‰ฐแАแˆณ แ‰ฅแ‰ป แŠ แ‹ญแ‹ฐแˆˆแˆแฃ แˆฐแ‹ แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‰ แ‰ฐแˆˆแ‹ซแ‹จ แˆ˜แŠ•แŒˆแ‹ต/แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ต แˆŠแˆจแˆณ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแข๐Ÿ‘‡๐Ÿ‘‡

2โƒฃInterference
๐Ÿ”–is an explanation for forgetting in long term memory, which states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories.

๐ŸŒทแŠ แ‹ซแ‰น แŠ  แ‹ญแˆ„ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹ แˆฐแ‹ แ‹จแˆšแˆจแˆณแ‹ แ‰€แ‹ตแˆž แ‰ แ‹แˆตแŒก แ‹จแАแ‰ แˆจแ‹แŠ“ แŠ แ‹ฒแˆต Encode แ‹ซแ‹ฐแˆจแŒˆแ‹ แАแŒˆแˆญ แŠฅแˆญแˆต แ‰ แŠฅแˆญแˆต แˆฒแŒˆแŒฉแ‰ แ‰ต แАแ‹แข

There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:
For Eg. When old phone numbers confuse with the new ones.

๐Ÿ“Proactive interference
Occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning โ€“ where old memories disrupt new memories.
I think แŠฅแŠ•แŒแˆŠแ‹˜แŠ›แ‹ แ‰ แŒฃแˆ แŒแˆแ… แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ“Retroactive interference
Occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.

แ‹ญแˆ„แˆ แ‹จแŒˆแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แ‹ญแˆ˜แˆตแˆˆแŠ›แˆ

3โƒฃDisplacement Theory
๐Ÿ”–This Theory Holds that new information entering memory can wipe out old information.
๐ŸŒทแ‹ญแˆ„ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แˆฐแ‹ แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ดแ‰ต แАแ‹ แˆšแˆจแˆณแ‹ แˆˆแˆšแˆˆแ‹ แˆ˜แˆแˆฑ "แŠ แ‹ฒแˆต แ‹จแŒˆแ‰ฃแ‹ แˆ˜แˆจแŒƒ แ‰€แ‹ตแˆž แ‹จแАแ‰ แˆจแ‹แŠ• แˆฒแ‰ฐแŠซแ‹ แАแ‹แข" แ‰ฅแˆŽ แАแ‹แข

๐Ÿ“ŒแŠ แ‹ญแˆแˆฎแ‹ แ‰ฅแ‹™ แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‰ แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต แŒŠแ‹œ แˆ˜แ‹ซแ‹ แˆตแˆˆแˆ›แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ แŠฅแ‹จแ‰ฐแ‰ฐแŠซแŠซ แАแ‹ แˆ˜แˆ„แ‹ต แ‹ซแˆˆแ‰ แ‰ต แ‹ญแˆ‹แˆแข แ‹ญแˆ‹แˆ แ‹ญแˆ„ theory๐Ÿ˜ แŠฅแŠ“ This theory is mostly associated with the STM [Short Term Memory]..LTM แŠจแˆ†แА แˆตแˆ…แ‰ฐแ‰ต แАแ‹ แˆแŠญแŠ•แ‹ซแ‰ฑแˆ แ‹จLTM Capacity Unlimited แАแ‹แค Unlimited แŠจแˆ†แА แ‹ฐแŒแˆž replacemet แˆšแ‰ฃแˆ แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‹จแˆˆแˆแข

4โƒฃMotivated Foretting
๐Ÿ”–Is what Freud referred to as repressing memories. According to Freud, there are times when an event or an action is so painful that we can't deal with the memory of it, so we repress the memory completely.

๐ŸŒทแ‹ญแˆ„ แˆ›แˆˆแ‰ต แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แˆ›แˆตแ‰ณแ‹ˆแˆต แ‹ซแˆแˆแˆˆแŒ‹แ‰นแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‰ แ‹แˆตแŒฃแ‰ฝแˆ แŠ แˆแ‰ƒแ‰ฝแˆ(repress) แ‰ แˆ˜แ‹ซแ‹ แ‰ แˆซแˆณแ‰ฝแˆ แแˆ‹แŒŽแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆฉแŠ• แˆแ‰ตแˆจแˆฑ แ‰ตแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแข
๐Ÿ“ŒFreud แ‹ญแˆ„แŠ•แŠ• self-protective process Repression แ‰ฅแˆŽ แ‹ญแŒ แˆซแ‹‹แˆแข
แˆˆแˆแˆณแˆŒ แŠฅแŠ” แŠ แˆแŠ• MosheแŠ• แŠฅแˆญแˆฑแ‰ต Moshe แ‹จแˆšแˆˆแ‹แŠ• แˆตแˆ แˆˆแˆ˜แˆญแˆณแ‰ต แˆ›แ‹ตแˆจแŒ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆแŠ• แˆแˆ‰ แŠ แ‹ตแˆญแŒ‰แŠ“ แŠฅแˆญแˆฑแ‰ต แ‰ฅแ‹ฌ แ‹จแ‰คแ‰ต แˆตแˆซ แ‰ฅแˆตแŒฃแ‰ฝแˆแŠ“ แАแŒˆ แ‰ แ‹šแˆ… แˆฐแ‹“แ‰ต แŠจแˆจแˆณแ‰ฝแˆแ‰ต แ‹ญแˆ„ Motivated Forgetting แ‹ญแ‰ฃแˆ‹แˆแข

แˆแŠ•แˆ แ‰ขแˆ†แŠ• แ‹จแˆ›แ‰ตแˆจแˆฑแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆญแˆต๐Ÿ˜‚

5โƒฃCue Dependent Forgetting
๐Ÿ”–is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded.

๐ŸŒทแ‹ญแˆ„ แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แˆแŠ• แˆ˜แˆฐแˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆ "แˆฐแ‹ แŠ แŠ•แ‹ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แ‹จแˆšแˆจแˆณแ‹ แ‰€แ‹ตแˆž แАแŒˆแˆฉแŠ• Encode แˆฒแ‹ซแˆจแŒ แ‰ แ‹™แˆชแ‹ซแ‹ แ‹จแАแ‰ แˆจแ‹ แˆแˆแŠญแ‰ต (Cue) แŠ แˆแŠ• แˆ‹แ‹ญ แŠซแˆŒแˆˆ แАแ‹แข" แ‰†แ‹ญ แ‰ แˆแˆณแˆŒ แˆ‹แˆตแˆจแ‹ณแ‰ฝแˆ students would sometimes forget what they had studied before an exam. This occurs because of the examination room's environmental conditions are different to the room or place where learning occurred.
Green area แ‹ซแˆˆแ‰ แ‰ต แ‰ฆแ‰ณ แŠ แŒฅแŠ•แ‰ณแ‰ฝแˆ แŒแŠ• แŠจแ‹šแ‹ซ แˆตแ‰ตแˆ„แ‹ฑ แŠฅแ‹šแ‹ซ แ‹ซแŒ แŠ“แ‰ฝแˆแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แˆŠแŒ แ‹แ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แ‹ญแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆแฃ แˆˆแˆแŠ• แŠจแ‰ฐแ‰ฃแˆˆ แŠจgreen areaแ‹(Cue) แ‰ฆแ‰ณ แˆตแˆˆแˆ„แ‹ณแ‰ฝแˆแข
๐Ÿ“ŒแˆŒแˆ‹ แˆแˆณแˆŒ แŒซแ‰ต๐ŸŒฟ(cue) แŠฅแ‹จแ‰ƒแˆ›แ‰ฝแˆ แ‹ซแŒ แŠ“แ‰ฝแˆแ‰ต แАแŒˆแˆญ แŠจแŒซแ‰ฑ แ‹จแˆซแ‰ƒแ‰ฝแˆ แ‹•แˆˆแ‰ต แ‹จแˆแ‰ตแˆจแˆฑแ‰ต แŠจแˆ†แА แ‹ญแˆ… Cue Dependent Forgetting แ‹ญแ‰ฃแˆ‹แˆแข แ‹ญแˆ„ แˆแˆณแˆŒ แˆˆแ‹ตแˆฌ แ‰ฐแˆ›แˆชแ‹Žแ‰ฝ แ‰ แ‹ฐแŠ•แ‰ฅ แ‹ญแŒˆแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแŠ‹แˆ๐Ÿ˜‚

๐Ÿ“ŒLikewise, if your emotional arousal is specially high or low at the time of an event, you may remember that event best when you are once again in the same emotional state.

Improving Memory

แ‹จแˆ˜แˆญแˆณแ‰ต แ‰ฝแŒแˆญ แ‹ซแˆˆแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แˆแŒ†แ‰ฝ แ‹จแˆšแŠจแ‰ฐแˆˆแ‹แŠ• แŠ แŠ•แ‰ฅแ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แ‰ฐแŒแ‰ฅแˆฉแ‰ต๐Ÿ˜ƒ

๐Ÿ“Pay Attention แ‰ตแŠฉแˆจแ‰ต๐ŸŒž
๐Ÿ“Encode information in Multiple ways
๐Ÿ“Add Meaning to the material
๐Ÿ“Take Your time: minimize interference by using study breaks แŠ แŠ•แ‹ณแŠ•แ‹ด แ‹ฐแŒแˆž แ‰ฐแŠ™ แˆˆแˆฝ๐Ÿคฉ
๐Ÿ“Over learn: แŠฅแ‹ซแАแ‰ แ‰ฃแ‰ฝแˆ แ‹ซแˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแ‰ตแŠ• แАแŒˆแˆญ แŠจแ‹šแˆ… แ‰ แŠแ‰ต แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐแˆแ‰ณแ‹แ‰แ‰ต แŠฅแ‹ซแˆฐแ‰ฃแ‰นแ‰ต แˆตแ‰ณแАแ‰ก แ‹จแˆ›แˆตแ‰ฐแ‹ˆแˆต แŠ แ‰…แˆ›แ‰ฝแˆ แ‹ญแŒจแˆแˆซแˆแข
๐Ÿ“Monitor Your Learning แŠฅแŠ“แŠ•แ‰ฐแ‹ แŠฅแˆซแˆณแ‰ฝแˆ แˆˆแˆซแˆณแ‰ฝแˆ แˆƒแˆˆแ‰ƒ แ‹ˆแ‹ญแˆ แˆ˜แˆช แˆ†แŠ“แ‰ฝแˆแฃ แŠฅแˆซแˆณแ‰ฝแˆแŠ• แŒˆแˆแŒแˆ™แฃ etc.

แŠฅแАแ‹šแˆ… แŠจแ‰ฅแ‹™ แ‰ แŒฅแ‰‚แ‰ฑ แˆžแŒแˆ‰ แˆ‹แ‹ญ แ‹จแ‰ฐแŒ แ‰€แˆฑแ‰ต แŠ“แ‰ธแ‹แฃ แˆŒแˆŽแ‰ฝ แ‰ฐแŒจแˆ›แˆช แŠจแˆแˆˆแŒ‹แ‰ฝแˆ internet แˆ‹แ‹ญ Search แŠ แ‹ตแˆญแŒ‹แ‰ฝแˆ แˆ›แ‹จแ‰ต แ‰ตแ‰ฝแˆ‹แˆ‹แ‰ฝแˆแข๐Ÿ˜Š

แ‰ แ‰€แŒฃแ‹ญ Chapter 5 แŠฅแŠ•แ‰€แŒฅแˆ‹แˆˆแŠ•!
แ‹ฐแˆ…แŠ“ แˆแŠ‘!๐Ÿ˜Š

ยฉA+ Tutorial Class
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แŠฅแŠ•แ‹ฐ แˆแ‰ตแˆฐแˆฉแ‰ต แ‰ฐแˆตแ‹ แŠ แˆˆแŠแข

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Psychology Mid Exam
[A+ Tutorial Class]

Read the following statements Carefully and Write True or False.

1. Sensory Adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it.

2. A reinforcement is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to occur.

3. The decay Theory holds that the Trace simply fades away with nothing left behid, due to passage of time.

4. Over learn is one of the ways to improve memory.

5. Retrieval occurs when information is brought to mind from storage.

Choose the best Answer

6. Which of the following is not organizing principle of Perception?
A. Proximity
B. Continuation
C. Law of Closure
D. Convergence

7. Which of the following is correct about Retinal disparity?
A. It is the degree of difference between the image of an object that are focused on thee single retina.
B. It's one of the monocular cues
C. The Closer the Object, the greater is the retinal disparity
D. It is two dimensional perception

8. From the following, One is Not Correct About Learning?
A. Learning is responsive to incentives
B. Learning is Pervasive
C. Learning is Multifaceted
D. Learning is a Passive Process

9. A Stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned is called:
A. Conditioned Stimulus
B. Unconditioned Stimulus
C. Neutral Stimulus
D. Unconditioned Response

10._____________is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
A. Stimulus generalization
B. Extinction
C. Spontaneous recovery
D. Stimulus Discrimination

11. If someone nags you all the time to stud, but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to increase-because you will then avoid nagging. This implies
A. Negative punishment
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Positive punishment
D. Postive reinforcement

12. Which schedule of reinforcement is often used by Employers to increase productivity?
A. Variable ratio schedule
B. Fixed interval schedule
C. Fixed ratio schedule
D. Variable interval schedule

13. Short term memory is
A. Active
B. Rapid accessibility
C. Limited capacity
D. All Except B

14. Which of the following responses is not learned through operant conditioning?
A. Shelly gets $50 after getting a 90 percent in her math class.
B. A pigeon learns to peck a disc to get food pellets.
C. A dog learns to turn in circles for a reward.
D. A baby takes his fi rst steps.
E. A horse jumps over a fence to avoid an electric shock

15. Which of the following statements best explains one major difference between short-term memory and long-term memory?
A. Long-term memory is unlimited in capacity while short-term memory is not.
B. Long-term memory holds only episodic memories while short-term memory does not.
C. Long-term memory varies a great deal from one person to another, while short-term memory does not.
D. In terms of processing, long-term memory comes directly after sensory memory while short-term memory does not.
E. Long-term memory depends on neural connections in the limbic system while short-term memory does not.

Give the Correct Answer for the following

16. Write the factors that are important that are important for the effectiveness of Punishment

17. What are four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else according to Bandura

18. What is a Serial Position effect

19. According to George Miller the stimated capacity of Short Term Memory is to be the magic number________

20. Suppose a oneyear old child is playing with a toy near an electrical outlet. He sticks part of the toy into the outlet. He gets shocked, becomes frightened, and begins to cry. For several days after that experience, he shows fear when his mother gives him the toy and he refuses to play with it. What is

a) UCS(Unconditioned stimulus)_____________

b) UCR(Unconditioned
Response) _________

c) CS(Conditioned Stimulus)_______________

d) CR(Conditioned Response)______________

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#Answer

1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True
6.D
7.C
8.D
9.B
10.C
11.B
12.C
13. No answer
14.D
15.A
16. Immediacy, Consistency and Intensity

17. Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Motivation

18. Is the ability to remember(recall) the first(primacy effect) and the last(recency effect)...

19. 7plus or minus 2

20. a. Electric shock
b. Frighten and cry
c. Toy
d. Fear (Frighten and cry)

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