⭐️ Biology 193 Questions With Answer 🤩

✔️ From Grade 10 (unit1-unit3)

📝 For Entrance preparation 😊

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⚡️Logic Study Book
Chapter 3

ሰፊ ዝገጅት የወሰደዉ Logic Study Book Chapter 3 ተጠናቆ ለንባብ አፕልኬሽናችን ጋ ተካቷል!

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[ Sample PDF ]

ከላይ የምታገኙት PDF ከ Logic Study Book Chapter 3 የተወሰደ ነዉ። Study Book ምን እንደሚመስል እና ምን እንዳካተተ ማየት ትችላላቹ
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📱ለ Mid/Final Exam ዝግጅት አሁኑኑ የኛ አፕልኬሽን ጋ ገብተዉ ማንበብ ይጀምሩ!

አፕልኬሽኑን ለማውረድ እና ለመጠቀም እነዚህን ፓስቶቻችንን ተመልከቱ

👉 አፕልኬሽኑን ለማውረድ

👉 የአፕልኬሽን አጠቃቀም መመሪሪያ ( User Guide )

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Study Book  ምን አካቷል ?

🔸 የኛን ለማንበብ እና ለማስታወስ የሚመች  ጠቃሚ Short Note

🔸 ለያንዳንዱ ርዕስ ከ Short Note በጣም ያጠረ ቁልፍ የሆኑ ሃሳቦች ብቻ የተካተቱበት "🗝Key Points" የተባለ ኖት

🔸 ከእያንዳንዱ ርእስ በኋላ ከተለያዩ ዩንቨርሲቲ የተውጣቱ ፈተናዎች ከነ መልስ እና በቂ ማብራሪያቸው ከ Module በማጣቀስ

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📚CHAPTER 5

📖INFORMAL FALLACIES

🔖What is Fallacy?

A fallacy, in most general terms, is an error or defect or mistake commited in arguments.
ብዙዎች "Fallacy" የሚለውን ቃል "ህፀፅ" በሚለው ይተረጉሙታል፣ ነገር ግን ቃሉን በደንብ ግልፅ የሚያደርገው ትርጉም "በአመክንዮ/በምክንያታዊነት አስተሳሰብ የሚከሰት ስህተት፣ ስህተት የማይመስሉ ነገር ግን ሰዎችን የሚያስቱ.."

🔖Depending on the kind of the problems or defects they contain, (i.e., the problems or defects that make them fallacious), arguments may commit either a formal or an informal fallacy. As a result, they are often grouped in two:

Formal fallacies and
Informal fallacies

📌Formal Fallacy is When an argument contains a #structural defect or problem and violates the standard form of a good argument.
📌ይህ ማለት በሃሳባቸው የተዋረድ ስርዓት ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ስህተቶች ማለት ነው።
የአረፍተ ነገሮቹና የቃላቶቹ አቀማመጥ ብቻ አይተን መለየት የምንችላቸው ናቸው።

እስኪ ቀጣዩን ምሳሌ ተመልከቱ👇
All Freshmans are Clevers.
Therefore, All Clevers are Freshmans.

አያቹ አ ይሄ አሁን Structural defect አለበት። ሁሉም ፍሬሽማን ጎበዝ ነው ማለት ሁሉም ጎበዝ ፍሬሽማን ነው ማለት አይደለም።

ስለዚህ Formal Fallacyን እንዲሁ አይታችሁ መለየት ትችላላችሁ! ደግሞ ያልነገርኳችሁ "formal fallacy are only found in Deductive Argument." እነ Categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive syllogism formal fallacyን Commit ሊያረጉ ይችላሉ።

እስኪ ሌላ ምሳሌ ልጨምርላችሁ👇
All Elephants are animals.
All mammals are animals.
Therefore, all elephants are mammals.

እንዲህ አይነቱን አሁን በቀላሉ informal fallacy መሆናቸውን የArgumentኡን Structure ብቻ በመመልከት መለየት ትችላላችሁ።

📚INFORMAL FALLACIES

📖Is a fallacy, which is committed due to a defect in the very content of an argument, other than in its structure of form.

Informal fallacies cannot be identified through mere inspection of the form or structure of the argument.

"Informal Fallacy"ን በአማርኛ ስንተረጉመው "በቃላቶቹና በአረፍተ ነገሮቹ መዋቅር ሳይሆን #ይዘታቸውን በመመርመር ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ግድፈቶች ማለት ነው።

Informal fallacyዎች በብዛት ትክክለኛ Argument ይመስላሉ፣ ሰዎችን የማሳመን ኃይል አላቸው ነገር ግን ስህተት ናቸው።

እስኪ አንድ የinformal fallacy ምሳሌ እንመልከት [ከሞጁሉ የተወሰደ]👇

All factories are plants.
All plants are things that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll.

ሲታይ ትክክለኛ argument ይመስላል አ? ነገር ግን አይደለም! " Plant" የሚለው Word የመጀመሪያውና የሁለተኛው Sentence ውስጥ የተጠቀመበት Context አንድ አደለም! የመጀመርያው ላይ Plant ማለት "ተመሰረተ፣ ተተከለ( ለቤት፣ ለፋብሪካ..)"
የሁለተኛው ላይ Plant ማለት ችግኝ ማለት ነው።
ስለዚህ Formኡ እንዲህ ሊሆን ይችላል👇
All A are B.
All B are C.
------------------
Therefore, All A are C.

አያቹ አ በደንብ ካላስተዋላችሁት informal fallacyን ለመለየት ትንሽ ከባድ ነው።

Now a day, more than 100 fallacies have been invented. Now let's see some of them.
መጀመሪያ ግልፅ እንዲሆንላችሁ ከታች የተለቀቀውን Photo ተመልከቱ

1⃣Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments in which the premise is logically irrelevant to establish the conclusion. (Except missing the point)

In this fallacy, although the premise is logically irrelevant, #Psychologically it could be relevant to the conclusion.
ማለትም the connection between premises and conclusion is emotional. Such arguments are often called non sequiturs ወይም Argumentative leaps ተብሎ ይጠራሉ።

መረጃ ሀሳቡ ከመደምደሚያው ጋር አግባብነት ካሌለው Fallacy of Relevance ይባላል።

በምስሉ እንዳያችሁት እዚህ ስር ስምንት(8) fallacies of relevance እናያለን።

1. Appeal to Force
[Argumentum Ad Baculum]

📍Occurs when an arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.

ይሄ "ማስረጃ በማቅረብ ከማሳመን ይልቅ በዛቻ ተቀባይነት ለማግኘት የሚደረግ የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።"

እስኪ እቺን ምሳሌ እዪአት: አባት ለልጁ:-

"My boy, you must study hard, if not you will be either a criminal or a beggar."

🔖This fallacy always involves a threat by the arguer to the physical or psychological well- being of the listener.
NB: ነገር ግን Argumentኡ በውስጡ ዛቻና ማስፈራራት ስለያዘ ብቻ Appeal to Force ነው ማለት አንችልም።

2. Appeal to Pity
[Argumentum ad misericordiam]

Is committed when one is persuaded to accept the conclusion because of pity or sympathy.

ይህ ደግሞ ማስረጃ ከማቅረብ ይልቅ #በማሳዘን የሚፈለገውን ለማግኘት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው። ከappeal to force የሚለየው:-

📍ያኛው በማስፈራራት ነው[Force] ይህኛው ደግሞ በማሳዘን [pity] ነው።
📍ያኛው በሰሚው ወይ በአንባቢው ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት ይናገራል ይህኛው ደግሞ በባለቤቱ ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት [unfortunate consequence] ይናገራል።

እስኪ አንድ ምሳሌ እንውሰድ👇
A weak student to his instructor

"Pr @gtutorialclass

ይቀጥላል...............

Professor, hear me once please. I should deserve at least a B in this course. If I do not, I will be in Prohibition and total lose of moral courage to attend other courses."

3. Appeal to People
[Argumentum ad Populum]

Is committed whenever anyone urging the acceptance of a claim by arousing strong feelings that may leaf audiences to accept the claim without a logical justigication of it.

ይህ ደግሞ የህዝብን ስሜት በማነሳሳት የፈለጉትን ለማሳካት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።

Two approaches are involved in appeal to people fallacy:
📍direct and
📍indirect.

🔖The direct approach occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.

ለምሳሌ እነ Hitler የህዝቡን ስሜት በማነሳሳትና በመቀስቀስ ነበር በሁዝቡ የዘረኝነትን መርዝ ከረጨ በኃላ የዚያ ሰው ሁሉ እልቂት የተፈፀመው።

🔖In the indirect approach, the arguer aims his or her appeal not at the crowd as a whole but at one or more individuals separately.

ይህ ደግሞ ለግለሰቦች የሚቀርብ ማባበያ ነው። There are Three forms of indirect approach

📍Appeal to Bandwagon
Emphasizes that the majority's choice is a correct one and urges audiences to join them
ይህ ማለት "አብዛኛው ሰው ተቀብሎታልና አንተም ተቀበለው" ማለት ነው።

Eg. " Many Freshman Students study in library so, Studying in library is the best for freshman students"

📍Appeal to Vanity
በችሎታቸው ዝኘኛ የሆኑ ሰዎች ስለሚጠቀሙበት አንተም ብትጠቀምበት የዝነኞቹ ክብር ይኖረሃል።

Eg. "Who is going to wear this new fashion dress, a dress worn by the famous Aster Awoke in her New Year's Sheraten Hotel's Show?"

📍Appeal to Snobbery

የተከበሩ ሰዎችን መጥቀስ ወይም ለሌሎች #የበላይ (Superior) የመሆን ፍላጎት

Eg. "The newly produced Malt Guiness is not for everyone to drink. But you are different from other people, aren't you? Therefore, the newly malt guiness is for you.

🔖In Birhanu direct and indirect approach to appeal to the people fallacy the arguer targeted on exploiting strong emotions of the people.

4. Argument against The Person
[Argumentum Ad Hominem]


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Psychology እና Anthropology በዚሁ መልክ ልንጀምር ስለሆነ ዝግጁ ሆነው ይጠብቁን

A+ ማምጣት ከሆን ፍላጎቶ እኝህን ማንበብ ከበቂ በላይ ነው 100%

አሁን ቀጣዩን ለመልቀቅ 2 ሰው ብቻ ይቀራል share አድርገው subscribers 1260 ሲሞላ የምንለቀ ይሆናል

በቃላችን መሰረት ከ60 ስለሞላ ይሄው ቀጣዩ
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Is Usually committed by discrediting (damaging the good reputation of a person) for the purpose of criticizing the arguments forwarded by the person.

የግለሰብን ማንነት በማጥቃት የቀረበውን ሀሳብ ውድቅ ለማድረግ ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

There are three types of the fallacy of Ad hominem

📍Ad Hominem Abusive Fallacy

Is committed when we engage in abusive remarks about the person and use them as a ground for rejecting the person's claim.
አንድን የቀረበ ሃሳብ መቃወም ሲፈለግ ማስረጃ አቅርቦ ከመቃወም ይልቅ የዚያን ሰው ስብዕና በማጉደፍ የሚቀርብ የስህተት ትችት ነው።

ይቺን ምሳሌ እዩአት👇

Eg. "Hailu's idea that there is life after death should be discounted; since he was regularly treated in Emmanuel Hospital-a hospital that treats individuals having personality disorders."

📍Ad Hominem Circumstantial Fallacy

This fallacy inferes that "A claim the person makes is false because somebody in that position could be expected to make such claims."

ይህ ከግለሰቡ ጋር የሚገናኙ ሁኔታዎችን በመጥቀስ ሀሳቡን ውድቅ ለማድረግ መሞከር ነው።

Eg. "We heard the saying of Getachew that 'Freedom is that we yearn (የምንናፍቀው)for Centuries in Ethiopia. But it could not yet to be achieved.' But Getachew's idea should be rejected, because he is one of the leaders of opposition parties."
አሁን Getachew 'በኢትዮጵያ ውስጥ ነፃነት የለም' ያለው የተፎካካሪ/የተቃራኒ Party አባል ስለሆነ ነው ብለን ብንደመድም ስህተት ነው።

📍Ad Hominem tu quoque

This fallacy is committed when we say that a person's clam is false because it's contrary with something else the person has said or done before.

Tu quoque ማለት "You also", "you did it, too" ማለት ነው።

የራስን ስህተት ለመሸፈን የሌላውን ስህተት መጥቀስ ነው።

ለምሳሌ እናት: ልጄ አትስረቅ ሌብነት ጥሩ አይደለም።
ልጅ: እንዴ እኔን እንዴት አትስረቅ ቲይኛለሽ? ባለፈው ከአባቴ ስር ብር ስትሰርቂ በአይኔ በብረቱ አላየሁሽምን

5. Accident

is committed when a general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover.

ለምሳሌ: "ማንኛውም ሰው የማውራት መብት አለው፣ ስለዚህ ፕሮፌሰር ከበደ ባለፈው ስለ ኢትዮጵያ መንግስት ስላወረው ነገር መታሰር አልነበረበትም።"

6. Straw Man Fallacy

This Fallacy is committed when some one opposes an opponen'ts ot other's opinion and presents in its place a distorted, oversimplified, misrepresented and exaggerated version for the purpose of making it easier to attack the opponenent's position.

የተናጋሪውን ወይም የፃፊውን ሀሳብ በማጋነን ወይም በማጣጣል ለትችት እንዲመች በማድረግ መቃወም ነው።

The basic structure of the argument consists of Person A making a claim, Person B creating a distorted version of the claim (the “straw man”), and then Person B attacking this distorted version in order to refute Person A’s original assertion.

ይቺን ምሳሌ ስትመለከቱ በደንብ ግልፅ ይሆንላችኋል😊

example, imagine a husband and a wife are trying to decide whether they should adopt a dog or a cat.

Wife: I'd rather have a dog than a cat.

Husband: Why do you hate cats?

The wife never said that she hated cats, only that she preferred dogs. The husband either assumed or pretended that her argument was against cats instead of for dogs. Now the wife must argue that she doesn't hate cats — which completely changes the course of the discussion[ወደ red herring fallacy ይመራናል]. 

7. Missing the point
[Ignoratio elenchi]

This fallacy is caused when the argument has a problem of the logical imlplication of the premise and draws the conclusion that which is not a right conclusion.

ይሄ በመረጃ ሀሳቡ መሠረት ትክክለኛውንና ተገቢ የሆነ መደምደሚያ ሃሳብ ላይ መድረስ አለመቻል ወይም ግብን መሳት ማለት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Ababa University has lots of problems. Students services and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are inexperienced. It follows that; the University should be entirely closed."

አያቹ አ የደረሰበትን Conclusion..ከመረጃዎቹ ተነስቶ "ብዙ ጉድለት ስላለበት ይዘጋ።" ማለቱ Fallacy ነው።

8. The Red Herring Fallacy
[Off the track fallacy]

This fallacy occurs when we instead of trying to prove or disprove others views some one attempts to change the subject.

It can also be called "Diversion".

በአጭሩ ማስቀየስ ማለት ነው። ተናጋሪው ባነሳው ሀሳብ መሠረት አንድ መደምደሚያ ሀሳብ ላይ እንዳይደረስ ሲፈለግ ከተነሳው ጉዳይ ጋር የማይገናኝ ሀሳብ በማንሳት የመጀመሪያውን ሃሳብ መቃወም ማለት ነው።

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📚Fallacies of Weak Induction

This types of fallacies usually appears in inductive arguments.
እነዚህ አሳሳች የሆኑ የግምታዊ አስተሳሰብ አመክንዮዎች ናቸው።

Chapter 2 ላይ ባያቿቸው inductive arguments ላይ defect ሲፈጠር Fallacies of weak induction are committed እንላለን።

The premises of the argument may be relevant but not sufficient to establish a conclusion.

9. Appeal to Unqualified Authority
[Argumentum Ad Verecandium]

Sometimes we are in need of the suggestion, comment, advice and information of others that would enable us to reach a conclusion of our own.

However, The person that we relied on to provide the information that we seek might be unreliable.

ይሄ መረጃ ለመስጠት ብቃት የሌለውን ሰው እማኝ ወይም ምስክር ማድረግ ነው።

ለምሳሌ፣ " Dr. Ismail, who is the famous biochemist in this country, told me last night that all economic policies of this country are wrong. It implies thay, this country's Economic policy is wrong."

አያቹ Dr. Ismail በህክምና ትልቅ ስልጣን አለው ማለት ስለ ሌላ ነገር የሰጠው ሃሰብ ትክክል ነው ማለት አይደለም።
ከዚው ጋር ተያይዞ ግን ስለ ኢኮኖሚው ማብራርያውን የሰጠው Economist ቢሆን ኖሮ Appeal to Authority ወይም Appeal to expert opinion ነው የሚባለው።

ስለዚህ ስለማያገባችሁ ወይም በደንብ ስለማታውቁት ነገር ማብራሪያ ከመስጠት ተቆጠቡ😊 So that you do not commit this fallacy😎

10. Appeal to Ignorance
[Argumentum ad ignorantiam]

This Fallacy is committed when one's conclusion is supported by one's own ignorance, lack of evidence or lack of tangible information or knowledge.

ስለ መረጃው ትክክለኛ እውቀት ሳይኖረን እንደምናውቀው ሆነን መደምደሚያ መስጠት። ይሄ Fallacy በሁሉት መንገድ ሊፈጠር ይችላል:-

📌Arguing that something is True Because no one has proved to be false.
(ሀሰት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ እውነት ነው ማለት)

📌Arguing that something is false Because no one Hassan proved it to be True. (እውነት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ ውሽት ነው ማለት)

Eg1. "Life After death is real, since no one has proved that there is no such thing as life after death."

Eg2. "Life after death is a myth, because no one yet proved that it is real."

11. Hasty Generalization Fallacy

This fallacy is just the opposite of Accident fallacy.
It is drawing a conclusion or reaching a certain point of generalization from too small evidences.

ከተወሰኑ ወይም ከጥቂት መረጃዎች ብቻ ተነስተን መደምደሚያ ስንሰራ የሚፈጠር የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Zemen Gazeta carried an interview to know the reading skill among young people. It has found out that, among ten young people it interviewed, none of them read a book for the last two years. The conclusion is obvious: all young people in the country do not have the culture of reading books."

12) False Cause Fallacy

Is Committed when someone infering causal explanations from premises that do not provide sufficient evidence to it.

የስህተት መንስኤን መረጃ ስናደርግ የሚፈጠር Fallacy ነው። ሶስት አይነት የFalse cause fallacy አይነት አለ

📍Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy

ስሙን ማንበብ ከበዳቹአ😂

This fallacy is committed when we arrive at a certain conclusion by claiming that one thing is the cause of another thing Because it preceds by the time.

ለምሳሌ፣ "ፈተና ላይ ሆናችሁ ወደ ክላስ እየሄዳችሁ የሞተ ጥቁር ዶሮ 🧟መንገድ ላይ ካያቹ ከዚያ ያንን ፈተና ከ3/10 ብታመጡ ያ ዶሮ ነው እንዲ ያረገኝ ስትሉ😁" ይህ post hoc...ነው።

ሌላ ምሳሌ " Ever since we quit going to church, our business has been going to worse. If we start attending church our business would become good"

📍Non causa pro causa fallacy

🔖Not the cause for the cause ማለት ነው።
መንስኤ መሆን የማይገባው መንስኤ ሆኖ ሲወሰድ።

Eg1. "እሷ ድሃ ናት ምክንያቱም ጠንቋይ ረግሟታል"😔

Eg2. "What makes Africans poor is because they are black people."

📍OverSimplified cause fallacy

አንድ ነገር ለመከሰቱ ብዙ ምክንያቶች እያሉት አንዱን ብቻ ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

Eg. "Don't worry; she will be all right from her abdominal sicknes. I gave her good advices"
ስለመከራት ብቻም አይሻላትም፣ ነገር ግን ከህመሟ እንድታገግም ምክር እንዱ ምክንያት ሊሆን ይችላል።

13. Slippery Slope Fallacy

🔖is a species of negative reasoning from consequences, used where two parties are deliberating together and one warns the other not to take a contemplated action.

ለተከሰቱት ሁኔታዎች ሁሉ ወይም መጨረሻ ላይ ለደረሰው ከባድ ችግር የመጀመሪያውን ምክንያት ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

ለሜሳሌ:-
Student: I do have a question, teacher.
Teacher: I will not allow you to ask me because, If I allow you to ask me, others will start asking me and as a result I will not have enough time for my lecture.
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