🔔 Different Universities Final Exams

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Civic

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Anthropology

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Logic

🔗 Logic Final Exam – University Of Gondar

🔗 Logic Final Exam – Jimma University

🔗 Logic Final Exam – Wollo University

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Emerging Technologies

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Entrepreneurship

🔗 Entrepreneurship Final Exam – Addis Ababa University

Economics

🔗 Economics Final Exam – Bahir Dar University

Inclusiveness

🔗 Inclusiveness Final Exam – Haramaya University

Computer programming

🔗 Computer programming Final Exam – Addis Ababa University

Psychology

🔗 Psychology Final Exam – Debre Tabor University

Geography

🔗 Geography Final Exam – Hawassa University

Communicative English II

🔗 Communicative English II

📚••𝐉𝐨𝐢𝐧 𝐮𝐬,  🎖📖🎖
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📚CHAPTER 5

📖INFORMAL FALLACIES

🔖What is Fallacy?

A fallacy, in most general terms, is an error or defect or mistake commited in arguments.
ብዙዎች "Fallacy" የሚለውን ቃል "ህፀፅ" በሚለው ይተረጉሙታል፣ ነገር ግን ቃሉን በደንብ ግልፅ የሚያደርገው ትርጉም "በአመክንዮ/በምክንያታዊነት አስተሳሰብ የሚከሰት ስህተት፣ ስህተት የማይመስሉ ነገር ግን ሰዎችን የሚያስቱ.."

🔖Depending on the kind of the problems or defects they contain, (i.e., the problems or defects that make them fallacious), arguments may commit either a formal or an informal fallacy. As a result, they are often grouped in two:

Formal fallacies and
Informal fallacies

📌Formal Fallacy is When an argument contains a #structural defect or problem and violates the standard form of a good argument.
📌ይህ ማለት በሃሳባቸው የተዋረድ ስርዓት ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ስህተቶች ማለት ነው።
የአረፍተ ነገሮቹና የቃላቶቹ አቀማመጥ ብቻ አይተን መለየት የምንችላቸው ናቸው።

እስኪ ቀጣዩን ምሳሌ ተመልከቱ👇
All Freshmans are Clevers.
Therefore, All Clevers are Freshmans.

አያቹ አ ይሄ አሁን Structural defect አለበት። ሁሉም ፍሬሽማን ጎበዝ ነው ማለት ሁሉም ጎበዝ ፍሬሽማን ነው ማለት አይደለም።

ስለዚህ Formal Fallacyን እንዲሁ አይታችሁ መለየት ትችላላችሁ! ደግሞ ያልነገርኳችሁ "formal fallacy are only found in Deductive Argument." እነ Categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive syllogism formal fallacyን Commit ሊያረጉ ይችላሉ።

እስኪ ሌላ ምሳሌ ልጨምርላችሁ👇
All Elephants are animals.
All mammals are animals.
Therefore, all elephants are mammals.

እንዲህ አይነቱን አሁን በቀላሉ informal fallacy መሆናቸውን የArgumentኡን Structure ብቻ በመመልከት መለየት ትችላላችሁ።

📚INFORMAL FALLACIES

📖Is a fallacy, which is committed due to a defect in the very content of an argument, other than in its structure of form.

Informal fallacies cannot be identified through mere inspection of the form or structure of the argument.

"Informal Fallacy"ን በአማርኛ ስንተረጉመው "በቃላቶቹና በአረፍተ ነገሮቹ መዋቅር ሳይሆን #ይዘታቸውን በመመርመር ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ግድፈቶች ማለት ነው።

Informal fallacyዎች በብዛት ትክክለኛ Argument ይመስላሉ፣ ሰዎችን የማሳመን ኃይል አላቸው ነገር ግን ስህተት ናቸው።

እስኪ አንድ የinformal fallacy ምሳሌ እንመልከት [ከሞጁሉ የተወሰደ]👇

All factories are plants.
All plants are things that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll.

ሲታይ ትክክለኛ argument ይመስላል አ? ነገር ግን አይደለም! " Plant" የሚለው Word የመጀመሪያውና የሁለተኛው Sentence ውስጥ የተጠቀመበት Context አንድ አደለም! የመጀመርያው ላይ Plant ማለት "ተመሰረተ፣ ተተከለ( ለቤት፣ ለፋብሪካ..)"
የሁለተኛው ላይ Plant ማለት ችግኝ ማለት ነው።
ስለዚህ Formኡ እንዲህ ሊሆን ይችላል👇
All A are B.
All B are C.
------------------
Therefore, All A are C.

አያቹ አ በደንብ ካላስተዋላችሁት informal fallacyን ለመለየት ትንሽ ከባድ ነው።

Now a day, more than 100 fallacies have been invented. Now let's see some of them.
መጀመሪያ ግልፅ እንዲሆንላችሁ ከታች የተለቀቀውን Photo ተመልከቱ

1⃣Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments in which the premise is logically irrelevant to establish the conclusion. (Except missing the point)

In this fallacy, although the premise is logically irrelevant, #Psychologically it could be relevant to the conclusion.
ማለትም the connection between premises and conclusion is emotional. Such arguments are often called non sequiturs ወይም Argumentative leaps ተብሎ ይጠራሉ።

መረጃ ሀሳቡ ከመደምደሚያው ጋር አግባብነት ካሌለው Fallacy of Relevance ይባላል።

በምስሉ እንዳያችሁት እዚህ ስር ስምንት(8) fallacies of relevance እናያለን።

1. Appeal to Force
[Argumentum Ad Baculum]

📍Occurs when an arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.

ይሄ "ማስረጃ በማቅረብ ከማሳመን ይልቅ በዛቻ ተቀባይነት ለማግኘት የሚደረግ የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።"

እስኪ እቺን ምሳሌ እዪአት: አባት ለልጁ:-

"My boy, you must study hard, if not you will be either a criminal or a beggar."

🔖This fallacy always involves a threat by the arguer to the physical or psychological well- being of the listener.
NB: ነገር ግን Argumentኡ በውስጡ ዛቻና ማስፈራራት ስለያዘ ብቻ Appeal to Force ነው ማለት አንችልም።

2. Appeal to Pity
[Argumentum ad misericordiam]

Is committed when one is persuaded to accept the conclusion because of pity or sympathy.

ይህ ደግሞ ማስረጃ ከማቅረብ ይልቅ #በማሳዘን የሚፈለገውን ለማግኘት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው። ከappeal to force የሚለየው:-

📍ያኛው በማስፈራራት ነው[Force] ይህኛው ደግሞ በማሳዘን [pity] ነው።
📍ያኛው በሰሚው ወይ በአንባቢው ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት ይናገራል ይህኛው ደግሞ በባለቤቱ ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት [unfortunate consequence] ይናገራል።

እስኪ አንድ ምሳሌ እንውሰድ👇
A weak student to his instructor

"Pr @gtutorialclass

Professor, hear me once please. I should deserve at least a B in this course. If I do not, I will be in Prohibition and total lose of moral courage to attend other courses."

3. Appeal to People
[Argumentum ad Populum]

Is committed whenever anyone urging the acceptance of a claim by arousing strong feelings that may leaf audiences to accept the claim without a logical justigication of it.

ይህ ደግሞ የህዝብን ስሜት በማነሳሳት የፈለጉትን ለማሳካት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።

Two approaches are involved in appeal to people fallacy:
📍direct and
📍indirect.

🔖The direct approach occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.

ለምሳሌ እነ Hitler የህዝቡን ስሜት በማነሳሳትና በመቀስቀስ ነበር በሁዝቡ የዘረኝነትን መርዝ ከረጨ በኃላ የዚያ ሰው ሁሉ እልቂት የተፈፀመው።

🔖In the indirect approach, the arguer aims his or her appeal not at the crowd as a whole but at one or more individuals separately.

ይህ ደግሞ ለግለሰቦች የሚቀርብ ማባበያ ነው። There are Three forms of indirect approach

📍Appeal to Bandwagon
Emphasizes that the majority's choice is a correct one and urges audiences to join them
ይህ ማለት "አብዛኛው ሰው ተቀብሎታልና አንተም ተቀበለው" ማለት ነው።

Eg. " Many Freshman Students study in library so, Studying in library is the best for freshman students"

📍Appeal to Vanity
በችሎታቸው ዝኘኛ የሆኑ ሰዎች ስለሚጠቀሙበት አንተም ብትጠቀምበት የዝነኞቹ ክብር ይኖረሃል።

Eg. "Who is going to wear this new fashion dress, a dress worn by the famous Aster Awoke in her New Year's Sheraten Hotel's Show?"

📍Appeal to Snobbery

የተከበሩ ሰዎችን መጥቀስ ወይም ለሌሎች #የበላይ (Superior) የመሆን ፍላጎት

Eg. "The newly produced Malt Guiness is not for everyone to drink. But you are different from other people, aren't you? Therefore, the newly malt guiness is for you.

🔖In Birhanu direct and indirect approach to appeal to the people fallacy the arguer targeted on exploiting strong emotions of the people.

4. Argument against The Person
[Argumentum Ad Hominem]


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