📖Wellega mid and final exam
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📖 Bahirdar mid and final exams




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📚CHAPTER 5

📖INFORMAL FALLACIES

🔖What is Fallacy?

A fallacy, in most general terms, is an error or defect or mistake commited in arguments.
ብዙዎች "Fallacy" የሚለውን ቃል "ህፀፅ" በሚለው ይተረጉሙታል፣ ነገር ግን ቃሉን በደንብ ግልፅ የሚያደርገው ትርጉም "በአመክንዮ/በምክንያታዊነት አስተሳሰብ የሚከሰት ስህተት፣ ስህተት የማይመስሉ ነገር ግን ሰዎችን የሚያስቱ.."

🔖Depending on the kind of the problems or defects they contain, (i.e., the problems or defects that make them fallacious), arguments may commit either a formal or an informal fallacy. As a result, they are often grouped in two:

Formal fallacies and
Informal fallacies

📌Formal Fallacy is When an argument contains a #structural defect or problem and violates the standard form of a good argument.
📌ይህ ማለት በሃሳባቸው የተዋረድ ስርዓት ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ስህተቶች ማለት ነው።
የአረፍተ ነገሮቹና የቃላቶቹ አቀማመጥ ብቻ አይተን መለየት የምንችላቸው ናቸው።

እስኪ ቀጣዩን ምሳሌ ተመልከቱ👇
All Freshmans are Clevers.
Therefore, All Clevers are Freshmans.

አያቹ አ ይሄ አሁን Structural defect አለበት። ሁሉም ፍሬሽማን ጎበዝ ነው ማለት ሁሉም ጎበዝ ፍሬሽማን ነው ማለት አይደለም።

ስለዚህ Formal Fallacyን እንዲሁ አይታችሁ መለየት ትችላላችሁ! ደግሞ ያልነገርኳችሁ "formal fallacy are only found in Deductive Argument." እነ Categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive syllogism formal fallacyን Commit ሊያረጉ ይችላሉ።

እስኪ ሌላ ምሳሌ ልጨምርላችሁ👇
All Elephants are animals.
All mammals are animals.
Therefore, all elephants are mammals.

እንዲህ አይነቱን አሁን በቀላሉ informal fallacy መሆናቸውን የArgumentኡን Structure ብቻ በመመልከት መለየት ትችላላችሁ።

📚INFORMAL FALLACIES

📖Is a fallacy, which is committed due to a defect in the very content of an argument, other than in its structure of form.

Informal fallacies cannot be identified through mere inspection of the form or structure of the argument.

"Informal Fallacy"ን በአማርኛ ስንተረጉመው "በቃላቶቹና በአረፍተ ነገሮቹ መዋቅር ሳይሆን #ይዘታቸውን በመመርመር ሊታወቁ የሚችሉ አሳሳች የአመክንዮ ግድፈቶች ማለት ነው።

Informal fallacyዎች በብዛት ትክክለኛ Argument ይመስላሉ፣ ሰዎችን የማሳመን ኃይል አላቸው ነገር ግን ስህተት ናቸው።

እስኪ አንድ የinformal fallacy ምሳሌ እንመልከት [ከሞጁሉ የተወሰደ]👇

All factories are plants.
All plants are things that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll.

ሲታይ ትክክለኛ argument ይመስላል አ? ነገር ግን አይደለም! " Plant" የሚለው Word የመጀመሪያውና የሁለተኛው Sentence ውስጥ የተጠቀመበት Context አንድ አደለም! የመጀመርያው ላይ Plant ማለት "ተመሰረተ፣ ተተከለ( ለቤት፣ ለፋብሪካ..)"
የሁለተኛው ላይ Plant ማለት ችግኝ ማለት ነው።
ስለዚህ Formኡ እንዲህ ሊሆን ይችላል👇
All A are B.
All B are C.
------------------
Therefore, All A are C.

አያቹ አ በደንብ ካላስተዋላችሁት informal fallacyን ለመለየት ትንሽ ከባድ ነው።

Now a day, more than 100 fallacies have been invented. Now let's see some of them.
መጀመሪያ ግልፅ እንዲሆንላችሁ ከታች የተለቀቀውን Photo ተመልከቱ

1⃣Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments in which the premise is logically irrelevant to establish the conclusion. (Except missing the point)

In this fallacy, although the premise is logically irrelevant, #Psychologically it could be relevant to the conclusion.
ማለትም the connection between premises and conclusion is emotional. Such arguments are often called non sequiturs ወይም Argumentative leaps ተብሎ ይጠራሉ።

መረጃ ሀሳቡ ከመደምደሚያው ጋር አግባብነት ካሌለው Fallacy of Relevance ይባላል።

በምስሉ እንዳያችሁት እዚህ ስር ስምንት(8) fallacies of relevance እናያለን።

1. Appeal to Force
[Argumentum Ad Baculum]

📍Occurs when an arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.

ይሄ "ማስረጃ በማቅረብ ከማሳመን ይልቅ በዛቻ ተቀባይነት ለማግኘት የሚደረግ የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።"

እስኪ እቺን ምሳሌ እዪአት: አባት ለልጁ:-

"My boy, you must study hard, if not you will be either a criminal or a beggar."

🔖This fallacy always involves a threat by the arguer to the physical or psychological well- being of the listener.
NB: ነገር ግን Argumentኡ በውስጡ ዛቻና ማስፈራራት ስለያዘ ብቻ Appeal to Force ነው ማለት አንችልም።

2. Appeal to Pity
[Argumentum ad misericordiam]

Is committed when one is persuaded to accept the conclusion because of pity or sympathy.

ይህ ደግሞ ማስረጃ ከማቅረብ ይልቅ #በማሳዘን የሚፈለገውን ለማግኘት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው። ከappeal to force የሚለየው:-

📍ያኛው በማስፈራራት ነው[Force] ይህኛው ደግሞ በማሳዘን [pity] ነው።
📍ያኛው በሰሚው ወይ በአንባቢው ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት ይናገራል ይህኛው ደግሞ በባለቤቱ ላይ ስለሚደርሰው ጉዳት [unfortunate consequence] ይናገራል።

እስኪ አንድ ምሳሌ እንውሰድ👇
A weak student to his instructor

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𝐼 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐷𝑜 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑖𝑡??

𝑆𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠
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𝑊𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑝
𝑃𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑢𝑠!!




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Professor, hear me once please. I should deserve at least a B in this course. If I do not, I will be in Prohibition and total lose of moral courage to attend other courses."

3. Appeal to People
[Argumentum ad Populum]

Is committed whenever anyone urging the acceptance of a claim by arousing strong feelings that may leaf audiences to accept the claim without a logical justigication of it.

ይህ ደግሞ የህዝብን ስሜት በማነሳሳት የፈለጉትን ለማሳካት ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የስህተት አስተሳሰብ ነው።

Two approaches are involved in appeal to people fallacy:
📍direct and
📍indirect.

🔖The direct approach occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.

ለምሳሌ እነ Hitler የህዝቡን ስሜት በማነሳሳትና በመቀስቀስ ነበር በሁዝቡ የዘረኝነትን መርዝ ከረጨ በኃላ የዚያ ሰው ሁሉ እልቂት የተፈፀመው።

🔖In the indirect approach, the arguer aims his or her appeal not at the crowd as a whole but at one or more individuals separately.

ይህ ደግሞ ለግለሰቦች የሚቀርብ ማባበያ ነው። There are Three forms of indirect approach

📍Appeal to Bandwagon
Emphasizes that the majority's choice is a correct one and urges audiences to join them
ይህ ማለት "አብዛኛው ሰው ተቀብሎታልና አንተም ተቀበለው" ማለት ነው።

Eg. " Many Freshman Students study in library so, Studying in library is the best for freshman students"

📍Appeal to Vanity
በችሎታቸው ዝኘኛ የሆኑ ሰዎች ስለሚጠቀሙበት አንተም ብትጠቀምበት የዝነኞቹ ክብር ይኖረሃል።

Eg. "Who is going to wear this new fashion dress, a dress worn by the famous Aster Awoke in her New Year's Sheraten Hotel's Show?"

📍Appeal to Snobbery

የተከበሩ ሰዎችን መጥቀስ ወይም ለሌሎች #የበላይ (Superior) የመሆን ፍላጎት

Eg. "The newly produced Malt Guiness is not for everyone to drink. But you are different from other people, aren't you? Therefore, the newly malt guiness is for you.

🔖In Birhanu direct and indirect approach to appeal to the people fallacy the arguer targeted on exploiting strong emotions of the people.

4. Argument against The Person
[Argumentum Ad Hominem]

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Is Usually committed by discrediting (damaging the good reputation of a person) for the purpose of criticizing the arguments forwarded by the person.

የግለሰብን ማንነት በማጥቃት የቀረበውን ሀሳብ ውድቅ ለማድረግ ሲሞከር የሚፈፀም የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

There are three types of the fallacy of Ad hominem

📍Ad Hominem Abusive Fallacy

Is committed when we engage in abusive remarks about the person and use them as a ground for rejecting the person's claim.
አንድን የቀረበ ሃሳብ መቃወም ሲፈለግ ማስረጃ አቅርቦ ከመቃወም ይልቅ የዚያን ሰው ስብዕና በማጉደፍ የሚቀርብ የስህተት ትችት ነው።

ይቺን ምሳሌ እዩአት👇

Eg. "Hailu's idea that there is life after death should be discounted; since he was regularly treated in Emmanuel Hospital-a hospital that treats individuals having personality disorders."

📍Ad Hominem Circumstantial Fallacy

This fallacy inferes that "A claim the person makes is false because somebody in that position could be expected to make such claims."

ይህ ከግለሰቡ ጋር የሚገናኙ ሁኔታዎችን በመጥቀስ ሀሳቡን ውድቅ ለማድረግ መሞከር ነው።

Eg. "We heard the saying of Getachew that 'Freedom is that we yearn (የምንናፍቀው)for Centuries in Ethiopia. But it could not yet to be achieved.' But Getachew's idea should be rejected, because he is one of the leaders of opposition parties."
አሁን Getachew 'በኢትዮጵያ ውስጥ ነፃነት የለም' ያለው የተፎካካሪ/የተቃራኒ Party አባል ስለሆነ ነው ብለን ብንደመድም ስህተት ነው።

📍Ad Hominem tu quoque

This fallacy is committed when we say that a person's clam is false because it's contrary with something else the person has said or done before.

Tu quoque ማለት "You also", "you did it, too" ማለት ነው።

የራስን ስህተት ለመሸፈን የሌላውን ስህተት መጥቀስ ነው።

ለምሳሌ እናት: ልጄ አትስረቅ ሌብነት ጥሩ አይደለም።
ልጅ: እንዴ እኔን እንዴት አትስረቅ ቲይኛለሽ? ባለፈው ከአባቴ ስር ብር ስትሰርቂ በአይኔ በብረቱ አላየሁሽምን

5. Accident

is committed when a general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover.

ለምሳሌ: "ማንኛውም ሰው የማውራት መብት አለው፣ ስለዚህ ፕሮፌሰር ከበደ ባለፈው ስለ ኢትዮጵያ መንግስት ስላወረው ነገር መታሰር አልነበረበትም።"

6. Straw Man Fallacy

This Fallacy is committed when some one opposes an opponen'ts ot other's opinion and presents in its place a distorted, oversimplified, misrepresented and exaggerated version for the purpose of making it easier to attack the opponenent's position.

የተናጋሪውን ወይም የፃፊውን ሀሳብ በማጋነን ወይም በማጣጣል ለትችት እንዲመች በማድረግ መቃወም ነው።

The basic structure of the argument consists of Person A making a claim, Person B creating a distorted version of the claim (the “straw man”), and then Person B attacking this distorted version in order to refute Person A’s original assertion.

ይቺን ምሳሌ ስትመለከቱ በደንብ ግልፅ ይሆንላችኋል😊

example, imagine a husband and a wife are trying to decide whether they should adopt a dog or a cat.

Wife: I'd rather have a dog than a cat.

Husband: Why do you hate cats?

The wife never said that she hated cats, only that she preferred dogs. The husband either assumed or pretended that her argument was against cats instead of for dogs. Now the wife must argue that she doesn't hate cats — which completely changes the course of the discussion[ወደ red herring fallacy ይመራናል]. 

7. Missing the point
[Ignoratio elenchi]

This fallacy is caused when the argument has a problem of the logical imlplication of the premise and draws the conclusion that which is not a right conclusion.

ይሄ በመረጃ ሀሳቡ መሠረት ትክክለኛውንና ተገቢ የሆነ መደምደሚያ ሃሳብ ላይ መድረስ አለመቻል ወይም ግብን መሳት ማለት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Ababa University has lots of problems. Students services and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are inexperienced. It follows that; the University should be entirely closed."

አያቹ አ የደረሰበትን Conclusion..ከመረጃዎቹ ተነስቶ "ብዙ ጉድለት ስላለበት ይዘጋ።" ማለቱ Fallacy ነው።

8. The Red Herring Fallacy
[Off the track fallacy]

This fallacy occurs when we instead of trying to prove or disprove others views some one attempts to change the subject.

It can also be called "Diversion".

በአጭሩ ማስቀየስ ማለት ነው። ተናጋሪው ባነሳው ሀሳብ መሠረት አንድ መደምደሚያ ሀሳብ ላይ እንዳይደረስ ሲፈለግ ከተነሳው ጉዳይ ጋር የማይገናኝ ሀሳብ በማንሳት የመጀመሪያውን ሃሳብ መቃወም ማለት ነው::

Eg. "Teferi: Do you know, that Almaz has got "A"🤩 in logic.
Asfaw: You knows that she always wears a miniskirts and she attracts teachers with her half-naked body. That is it🤷‍♂ and not her own effort. So, scoring "A" is not a kind of grade that sh

e deserves for."

በቀጣይ Fallacies of Weak Induction እናያለን

ሰላም ሁኑ🤗

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እስኪ ትንሽ ዘና እንበል😂...መልካም ምሽት



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📚Fallacies of Weak Induction

This types of fallacies usually appears in inductive arguments.
እነዚህ አሳሳች የሆኑ የግምታዊ አስተሳሰብ አመክንዮዎች ናቸው።

Chapter 2 ላይ ባያቿቸው inductive arguments ላይ defect ሲፈጠር Fallacies of weak induction are committed እንላለን።

The premises of the argument may be relevant but not sufficient to establish a conclusion.

9. Appeal to Unqualified Authority
[Argumentum Ad Verecandium]

Sometimes we are in need of the suggestion, comment, advice and information of others that would enable us to reach a conclusion of our own.

However, The person that we relied on to provide the information that we seek might be unreliable.

ይሄ መረጃ ለመስጠት ብቃት የሌለውን ሰው እማኝ ወይም ምስክር ማድረግ ነው።

ለምሳሌ፣ " Dr. Ismail, who is the famous biochemist in this country, told me last night that all economic policies of this country are wrong. It implies thay, this country's Economic policy is wrong."

አያቹ Dr. Ismail በህክምና ትልቅ ስልጣን አለው ማለት ስለ ሌላ ነገር የሰጠው ሃሰብ ትክክል ነው ማለት አይደለም።
ከዚው ጋር ተያይዞ ግን ስለ ኢኮኖሚው ማብራርያውን የሰጠው Economist ቢሆን ኖሮ Appeal to Authority ወይም Appeal to expert opinion ነው የሚባለው።

ስለዚህ ስለማያገባችሁ ወይም በደንብ ስለማታውቁት ነገር ማብራሪያ ከመስጠት ተቆጠቡ😊 So that you do not commit this fallacy😎

10. Appeal to Ignorance
[Argumentum ad ignorantiam]

This Fallacy is committed when one's conclusion is supported by one's own ignorance, lack of evidence or lack of tangible information or knowledge.

ስለ መረጃው ትክክለኛ እውቀት ሳይኖረን እንደምናውቀው ሆነን መደምደሚያ መስጠት። ይሄ Fallacy በሁሉት መንገድ ሊፈጠር ይችላል:-

📌Arguing that something is True Because no one has proved to be false.
(ሀሰት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ እውነት ነው ማለት)

📌Arguing that something is false Because no one Hassan proved it to be True. (እውነት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ ውሽት ነው ማለት)

Eg1. "Life After death is real, since no one has proved that there is no such thing as life after death."

Eg2. "Life after death is a myth, because no one yet proved that it is real."

11. Hasty Generalization Fallacy

This fallacy is just the opposite of Accident fallacy.
It is drawing a conclusion or reaching a certain point of generalization from too small evidences.

ከተወሰኑ ወይም ከጥቂት መረጃዎች ብቻ ተነስተን መደምደሚያ ስንሰራ የሚፈጠር የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Zemen Gazeta carried an interview to know the reading skill among young people. It has found out that, among ten young people it interviewed, none of them read a book for the last two years. The conclusion is obvious: all young people in the country do not have the culture of reading books."

12) False Cause Fallacy

Is Committed when someone infering causal explanations from premises that do not provide sufficient evidence to it.

የስህተት መንስኤን መረጃ ስናደርግ የሚፈጠር Fallacy ነው። ሶስት አይነት የFalse cause fallacy አይነት አለ

📍Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy

ስሙን ማንበብ ከበዳቹአ😂

This fallacy is committed when we arrive at a certain conclusion by claiming that one thing is the cause of another thing Because it preceds by the time.

ለምሳሌ፣ "ፈተና ላይ ሆናችሁ ወደ ክላስ እየሄዳችሁ የሞተ ጥቁር ዶሮ 🧟መንገድ ላይ ካያቹ ከዚያ ያንን ፈተና ከ3/10 ብታመጡ ያ ዶሮ ነው እንዲ ያረገኝ ስትሉ😁" ይህ post hoc...ነው።

ሌላ ምሳሌ " Ever since we quit going to church, our business has been going to worse. If we start attending church our business would become good"

📍Non causa pro causa fallacy

🔖Not the cause for the cause ማለት ነው።
መንስኤ መሆን የማይገባው መንስኤ ሆኖ ሲወሰድ።

Eg1. "እሷ ድሃ ናት ምክንያቱም ጠንቋይ ረግሟታል"😔

Eg2. "What makes Africans poor is because they are black people."

📍OverSimplified cause fallacy

አንድ ነገር ለመከሰቱ ብዙ ምክንያቶች እያሉት አንዱን ብቻ ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

Eg. "Don't worry; she will be all right from her abdominal sicknes. I gave her good advices"
ስለመከራት ብቻም አይሻላትም፣ ነገር ግን ከህመሟ እንድታገግም ምክር እንዱ ምክንያት ሊሆን ይችላል።

13. Slippery Slope Fallacy

🔖is a species of negative reasoning from consequences, used where two parties are deliberating together and one warns the other not to take a contemplated action.

ለተከሰቱት ሁኔታዎች ሁሉ ወይም መጨረሻ ላይ ለደረሰው ከባድ ችግር የመጀመሪያውን ምክንያት ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

ለሜሳሌ:-
Student: I do have a question, teacher.
Teacher: I will not allow you to ask me because, If I allow you to ask me, others will start asking me and as a result I will not have enough time for my lecture.
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14. Weak Analogy

ይቺ ቀላል ናት😊 ተገቢ ያልሆነ የምስስሎሽ አስተሳሰብ ነው።

Eg. " My instructor's car is blue in colour, its speed is 180km/h and it is made in Germany. My sister's new car is also blue and has speed of 180k./h. Therefore, my sister's car is also made in Germany."

በቀጣይ ስለ Fallacies Of Presumption እናያለን።

በደንብ አንብቡ የተለያዩ ምሳሌዎችን ተለማመዱ🤗
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🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳🤳
𝐃𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐚𝐚 𝐠𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞.
✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️✍️



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✍ በ tutorial class ተዘጋጅቶ የቀረበ።

📚 CHAPTER ONE

ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

📍 በዚህ ቻፕተር ስር ምን ምን እናያለን

🌹 Definition of psychology and related concepts.

🌹 Goals of psychology

🌷 Historical background and major perspectives in psychology

🌹 Branches/subfields of psychology


📌 Definition of Psychology & Related concepts

The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and 'logos'.

🎈 Psyche(ሳይኬ) - refers to mind, soul or sprit.

🎈 Logos (ሎጎስ) - means study, knowledge or discourse.

Therefore, by combining the two Greek words the term "psychology" epistemologically(አንድ ነገር በብዙ መንገድ ትርጉም ሊሰጠው ይችላል Etymologically, Epistemologically... ወደ ፊት Logic ላይ ትማሩታላችሁ) refers to the study of the mind, soul, or spirit.

ሳይኮሎጂስቶች ግን በተለያየ መንገድ ነው ሳይኮሎጂን የሚያብራሩት ነገረ ግን አብዛኞቹ በዚህ ላይ ይስማማሉ፦

📖 Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental.

🎯 ሳይኮሎጂ ማለት ስለ ሰው ልጅ ባህሪና ስለ ዋናው አይምሮአቸው(አስተሳሰባቸው) የሚያጠና ሳይንስ ነው።

👆 ልብ በሉ ከላይ በዋናነት 3 ነገሮች ተጠቅሰዋል፦

1⃣ Science ፦ psychology uses scientific methods to study behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals.

ይህ ማለት አንድ ሳይኮሎጂስት የሰዉን ባህሪ እና ስነልቦና ሊመረምር ከፈለገ ከመሬት ተነስቶ ስሜት ላይ ተመስርቶ አይደለም::

He Must use Sceintific methods.
Scientific methods ደግሞ lower class ላይ እንደተማርነው (observation,asking the question,hypothesis...እያለ የሚቀጥለው ነው፥ Psychologyም ይህንን ሂደት መከተል አለበት።)

2⃣ Behavior : refers to all of our overt actions and reactions.

👉 Overt ማለት ውጫዊ ባህሪያት ማለት ነው:: such as talking( የአነጋገራችን ሁኔታ), facial expressions( ፊታችን ላይ የሚነበበው ስሜት), movement(እንቅስቃሴዎቻችን), etc.

3⃣ Mental processes: refer to all the internal, covert activities of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.

👉 Mental process ማለት ደግሞ ሌሎች ሰዎች ሊያዩት የማይችሉ ፡ ድብቅ የሆነ በ ውስጣችን ያለ የ አዕምሮአችን ስራ ወይም እንቅስቃሴ ነው። ለምሳሌ ስለ አንድ ነገር ማሰብ ማሰላሰል ፡ ስለ አንድ ነገር የተሰማን ስሜት ፡ ስለ አንድ ነገር ማስታወስ ወዘተ።

😎 ስለዚህ psychology ማለት ሳይንሳዊ ዘዴዎችን ተጠቅመን ስለ ሰው ልጆች ውጫዊ እና ውስጣዊ ባህሪ እንዲሁም አስተሳሰብ ማጥናት ማለት ነው።

🤔እናንተስ ቀድሞ ስለ ሳይኮሎጂ ምን አይነት መረዳት ነበራችሁ?

📌 Goals of Pyschology

🤔 ይህ ማለት ሳይኮሎጂ ለምን አስፈለገ? ግቡ ምንድነው?

👨‍🏫 ሳይኮሎጂ ስለ ሰው ልጆች ባህሪ ና አስተሳሰብ ሲያጠና ሊያሳካቸው የሚፈልገው አራት መሰረታዊ አላማዎች ወይም ግቦች አሉት።

Psychology has four goals፡

📍description
📍explanation
📍 prediction
📍 control

አንድ በአንድ እንያቸው እስኪ።

🔶 Description - it involves observing the behavior and noticing everything about it.

🔷 Description ማለት አንድ ሰው ውስጡ ላይ ያለውን ስሜት(ሀዘን ፡ ደስታ ፡ ጭንቀት ወዘተ) በውጨኛው የስሜት ህዋሱ በሚያንፀባርቅበት ጊዜ የሰውየውን ውጫዊ ባህሪ ፡ የሚያሳየውን ውጫዊ ስሜት ማወቅ ፡ መረዳት ፡ ማስተዋል ማለት ነው።

👉በአጭሩ ሰዎች የሚያሳዩትን ስሜት ፡ የሰዎችን ባህሪ መረዳት መገንዘብ description ይባላል።

ስለዚህ🙌

"What is happening?"
(ምን ሁኖ ነው ? ምን ተፈጥሮ ነው?)

"Where does it happen?"
(መቼ ነው የተፈጠረው?)

" To Whom does it happen?.."
( ማን ላይ ነው የተፈጠረው?)

እና ለመሳሰሉት ጥያቄዎች መልስ መፈለግ ነው።

ለምሳሌ😎

አንዱ ፍሬው(ፍሬሽማን) ትምህርቱን በ አግባቡ ለመከታተል ከተቸገረ ፣ ውጤት ቢቀንስበት እና Class ውስጥ ጭንቀት ቢታይበት፣ ...ይሄ Description ነው ምክንያቱም ውጫዊ የሆነ የጭንቀት የመረበሽ ስሜት ከሱ ላይ ማየት ስለምንችል እና ከላይ የዘረዘርናቸውን ጥያቄ ይመልሳል።

🔶 Explanation: It is about trying to find reasons for the observed behavior.

🔷 Explanation ማለት የሰውየውን ውጫዊ ስሜት እና ባህሪ ከተረዳን ካወቅን በሗላ ፡ ሰውየው ያንን ስሜት ወይም ባህሪ ያሳየበትን ምክንያት ለማወቅ ጥረት የማድረግ እና ምክንያቱን የመግለፅ ሒደት ነው።

ይሄ ደግሞ

"Why it is happening?🤔"

ለሚለው ጥያቄ መልስ የሚፈለግ ነው።

😎ለምሳሌ በላይኛው👆 የፍሬው ልጅ ምሳሌ

"ልጁ #ለምን እንደዛ ሆነ?🤔"

" ልጁ ለምን ውጤቱ ቀነሰ?🤔"

" ልጁ ለምን የመረበሽ የመጨነቅ ስሜት እና ባህሪ አሳየ?🤔"

ብለን በመጠየቅ ምክንያቱን ማወቅ እና መግለፅ explanation ይባላል።

☹️ለምሳሌ ልጁ እንደዚያ የሆነው ምናልባት ከፍቅረኛው ጋር ተጣልቶ ይሆናል። (Also explanation is the process forming Theory.)

🔶 Prediction : It is about determining what will happen in the future.

🔷 Prediction ከስሙ እንደምንረዳው ስለወደፊቱ መተንበይ ነው። ስለዚህ ሰውየው ከሚያሳየው ስሜት በመነሳት እንዲሁም ምክንያቱን መሰረት በማድረግ ወደ ፊት ምን ሊፈጠር እንደሚችል ፡ ሰውየው ወደፊት ምን ሊሆን እንደሚችል መተንበይ prediction ተብሎ ይጠራል።

ከላይ በወሰድነው ምሳሌ መሠረት "ይሄ ልጅ ወደፊት ምን ሊሆን ይችላል?" ምናልባት በትምህርቱ ውጤታማ ላይሆን ይችላል ፡ ትምህርቱን ሊያቋርጠው ይችላል ወይም ደግሞ እራሱን ሊያጠፋ ይችላል።" ይሄ prediction(ትንበያ) ነው።

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1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology

Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 125 years old. It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt.
ስለዚህ Who is the Father of modern Pyschology? ቢባል መልሱ ግልፅ ነው:- Wundt.

Once psychology begun to use the scientific method, it then went through successive developments in which different schools of thought(pyschology) were emerged.

💡Old(early) School of Pyschology
💡Modern School of Pyschology

➤Early School of Physchology
ቆይ first School of Physchology ምን ማለት ነው?
ለምሳሌ እናንተ "የሰው ባህሪ ከዉርስ የሚመጣ ነው።" ወይም "የሰው ባህሪ መሰረቱ የሚኖርበት Environment" ብላችሁ ልታስቡ ትችላላችሁ let's take subExample ሰው ሲናደደ ከወላጆቹ ወርሶ ነው ወይም ደግሞ ሌላ አይነት Thought ሲኖራችሁ፣ ያን ጊዜ School of physchology(thought) ይባላል። Simply it the system of thinking abt certain issue.

There are five early School of Thought.
📌Structuralism
📌Functionalism
📌Gestalt Psychology
📌Behaviourism
📌psychoanalysis

1⃣Structuralism- It views Phsychology as a study of structure of mind.
🌹ይሄኛው የሳኮሎጂ ትምህርት ቤት ደግሞ ሳይኮሎጂን የሚያብራራው "ሳይኮሎጂን ስለ አይምሮ መዋቅር(Structure) ጥናት ነው።" ብሎ ነው

🌹የዚኛውን School of Psychology መስራችስ ማን ነበር? Titchner ይባላል የWundts ተማሪ ነበር።
Wundts ደግሞ ማነው ረሳቹት😊
የዘመናዊው(Modern) pschology መስራች ነበር።
🌹እና Structuralism የሚያጠነጥነው እነዚህ አይምሮን የሚሰሩ(make up) ጥቃቅን Unitኦች ወይም Elementኦች
ላይ ነው፣ እነዚህ ለMind መሠረት የሆኑት ነገሮች ምንድናቸው?
✧images
✧feelings
✧sensations ይባላሉ።
Structuralistኦች እንደ ሚያምኑት ከሆነ አይምሮ የተመሠረተው ከእነዚህ👆 ሶስት ነገሮች ላይ ነው፤ ሳይኮሎጂም ስለ እነዚህ ነገሮች የሚያጠና ነው ብሎው ያምናሉ። እናንተም እመኑ ከፈለጋችሁ🤓

2⃣Functionalism እነዚህ ደግሞ Structuralism (ሳይኮሎጂ ስለ አይምሮ ብቻ ነው ማለት) ለሳይኮሎጂ በቂ ማብራርያ አይሆነውም፣ ብለው ሌላ አስተሳሰብ(School of Psychology) አመጡ። የነዚህ ሀሳብ ደግሞ ምን ይሆን?🤔

🌹Functionalist views psychology as a study of function of the mind.
ሳይኮሎጂ ስለ አይምሮ የሚያጠና ብቻ ሳይሆን ስለ አይምሮ አሰራር(function) የሚያጠና ነው።

🌹የዚህ አስተሳሰብ መስራች ማን
ነው? William James ይባላል( የመጀመርያውን የሳይኮሎጂ መፅሐፍ የፃፈው ሰውዬ)

ይቺ የWilliamን ሀሳብ ግልፅ ታደርገዎለች👇
Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real world; how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings, a viewpoint he called functionalism.

3⃣Gestalt Psychology
መጀመርያ gestalt ቃሉ ራሱ
ምንድነው? German(የጀርመን) word ነው፣ ትርጉሙ form, whole, configuration or pattern(አቋቋም ወይም ቅርፅ ተብሎ መተርጎም ይችላል።

🌹It views psychology as a study of the whole mind.
ይሄ ደግሞ structuralismምም ሆነ Functionalism Psychologyን በደምብ አያብራራውም። ሳይኮሎጂ ሰለ አጠቃላይ ስለ አይምሮ የሚያጠና ነው ይላሉ።

🌹የዚህ አስተሳሰብ Founder የነበሩት Max Wertheimer እና ጓደኞቹ ነበሩ።

✅By the way Gestaltኦች በStructuralism ሀሳብ(አይምሮ የጥቃቃን ነገሮች Combination ነው) አይስማሙም።😊 እናንተስ?

They held that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Means mind is greater than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings) አያቹ
Gestalts ያሉት The Whole ነው
Structuralists ደግም The sum ነው።

🖇ያም ሆነ ይህ ሶስቱም School of Psychology ትኩረት ያደረጉት የሰው አይምሮ፣ ውስጣዊውና የማይታየው ልምምድ ላይ ነበር።

ደግሞ እኛ Psychologyን ስናጠና Sceintific ነው ብለን ዬለ
😊ስለዚህ ሳይንሳዊ በሆነ መንገድ ሳይኮሎጂን ለመረዳት ውጫዊና የሚታነው ባህሪ ያስፈልጋል።
ለዚህ ሲባል ሌሎች ተጨማሪ አስተሳሰቦች ተፈጠሩ🙈

4⃣Behaviorism:

🌹behaviorists view psychology as a study of observable and measurable behaviors.
ሳይኮሎጂ የሚታየው እና ልንገመግመው የምንችለው ባህሪ ነው፥ ምንም ከውስጣዊው አይምሮ ጋር የሚያገናኘው
ነገር የለም🙄 አሉ።

🌹John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism.
እና ይሄ ሰውዬ የሚያምነው ባህሪን
እንማረዋለን እንጂ ከወላጆቻቸን አንወርሰውም ብል ይላል።

እነዚህ አራቱም School of Psychology በቂ አልነበሩም፣
ከዛ ሌላ አስተሳሰብ መጣ።

5⃣Psychoanalysis:
🌷 psychology studies about the components of the unconscious part of the human mind.

🌹Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder of this school of thought.

እና ይሄ ሰውዬ ዶክተር ስለነበር😋
አንዳንዱን ተማሚዎቹን ሲያይ የህመመቻው #ምንጭ የሚታወቅ አይደለም ማለትም፣ ተመርምሮም
አይገኝም ደግሞም ታማሚዎቹም
እራሳቸው አያውቁትም😔
🖇ይሄ ማለት የህመማቸው ምንጭ (cause) Non-Physical or Emotional ነው ማለት ነው።
🖇የዚህን አይነቱን illness
(ህመመ) Sigmund..."hysteria" ብሎ
ይጠራዋል።

Modern schools of psychology

እነዚህ ደግሞ ስድስት ናቸው👇
➨psychodynamic,
➨behavioral
➨humanistic
➨cognitive
➨biological and
➨sociocult

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Fallacies Of Presumption

These Fallacies arise not because the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion or provide sufficient reason But because the premises presume what they purport to prove.

ሊጠየቁና ሊብራሩ የሚገቡ ጉዳዮችን አድበስብሶ በማለፍ መደምደሚያ ለመስጠጠት መሞከር ማለት ነው።

15. Begging the Question
[Petitio Principii]

🔖The fallacy of begging the question occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. In other words, you assume without proof the stand/position.

ጥያቄ የሚያስነሳውን ጉዳይ በተዘዋዋሪ እንድንቀበለው ስንጠየቅ፤ ይሄ fallacy ሌላ ስሙ "Arguing in A circle" ይባላል። ቆይ እነዚህን ምሳሌ ተመልከቱ፣

Eg1. "I believe the President is telling the truth because he says he is telling the truth."

Eg2. "God exists because I do not want to be sent to hell."

16. Complex question

🔖It is committed when someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved.

ሁለት አማራጭ ብቻ ተሰቷችሁ ጥያቄ ስትጠየቁ ፣ የተጠየቀውን አምናችሁ እንድትቀበሉ ማድረግ ነው።

ለምሳሌ "እኔ አንዱን የA+ Tutorial ተማሪን ክላስ ውስጥ ፈስ መፍሳት አቁመሃል? 😂ብዬ ብጠይቀው "አዎ/ወይም አይደለም" ብሎ ከመለሰ መጀመሪያ ፈስ ይፈሳ እንደነበር አምኗል ማለት ነው።🙆‍♂

Eg2. " Have You stopped dating girls?
Eg3. " Have you still proud of yourself being a man having many wives?"

17. False Dichotomy

🔖When the arguer assumes that only two alternatives possible in a given situation (that is impossible to be outside of these two choices).

ሁለት ተፃራሪ አማራጭ በማቅረብ አንዱን እንድንመርጥ ማስገደድ ነው። ይሄ fallacy ብዙ ስም አለው Black and White thinking, false dilemma...

Eg1. "If you are not for me, you must be against me."

Eg2. " The TPLF has only two options; that is either እጅ መስጠት or መደምሰስ"😁

18. Suppressed Evidence

ተገቢውን መረጃ በመሰወር ተገቢ ባልሆኑ መረጃዎች መደምደሚያ ሃሳብ ላይ መድረስ።

Eg1 "Addis Ababa University is one of the prominent and good universities in Africa, because the colour of the buildings are impressive, the flowers and other plants get enough water and it has sample gates around the compound."

አያቹአ ዩኒቨርስቲው ምርጥ ነው ለማለት የተጠቀመበትን ምክንያቶች፣ ከትምህርት ጥራቱ ይልቅ ሌላ ነገር እንደ መረጃ ተጠቅሞ ነው፣ መደምደሚያ የሰጠው።

Fallacies of Ambiguity

These fallacies are Committed when misleading or wrong conclusions of an argument is drawn from ambiguous words or statements.

19. Equivocation

🔖In equivocation fallacy the #Word is used in two different senses.

በአንድ አመክንዮ አንድን ቃል ሁለት ትርጉም እንዲይዝ ሆኖ ጥቅም ላይ ሲውል የሚከሰት ስህተት ነው።

Eg1. "The music that i have heard yesterday in Cinema Ethiopia was #sweet. I have made a #sweet talk there with the person That I couldn't recognize him now. Hence, I couldn't recognize the music that I heard yesterday in Cinema."

20. The Fallacy of Amphibody

🔖The fallacy of amphiboly happens when someone uses grammar or punctuation in a way that a statement could be interpreted as having more than one meaning, so it is unclear what is really meant.

ይሄኛው ሁለት ሰዎች በተሳሳተ የቋንቋ ሰዋሰው በመጠቀም የሚፈጥሩት የግንዛቤ ችግር ነው።

Eg. "Arega Told me that he always quarrels with his father when he is drunk.

This statement can be interpreted in two ways

Listener1- "So, it is the continuous intoxication of Arega that causes the quarrel Against his father"

Listener2- "No, It is Arega's father who is continuously drinking"

አያቹአ "He" የሚለው Pronoun ያመጣውን ስህተት፣ ከEquivocation ጋር እንዳይጋጭባችሁ፣ ያኛው Word(Phrase) ነው Amphiboly ግን Grammatical ስህተት ነው።

Fallacies of Grammatical Analogy

21. Fallacy of Composition

📖If some one argue that:

📍What is true of each part (some part) of a whole is also necessarily true for the whole itself.

የክፍሉ ባህሪ የዋናው አካል ባህሪ ነው ብሎ ማመን፣ ለምሳሌ፦

"Each member of the team is married; therefore the team must have married."

ግን ከHasty generalization fallacy ጋር እንዳይምታታባችሁ!
📍Composition ከMembers/ Parts of the whole ጋር ነው ሚገናኘው።

22. Fallacy of Division

📖It is the opposite of fallacy of Composition, it is committed when some one argues that:

📍What is True of a Whole is also necessirly true for its parts

ይህ የዋናውን አካል ባህሪ የክፍሎቹ(የብልቶቹ) ባህሪ ማድረግ ነው።

Eg. "The USA is the richest country in the World. Hence, my uncle who live there must be wealth too."

ይሄ ደግሞ ከAccident fallacy ጋር እንዳይምታታባችሁ!

The End!


𝗝𝗼𝗶𝗻 𝘂𝘀 𝗵𝗲𝗿𝗲 ⤵️⤵️
@Gtutorialclass

ጅማዎች አፍጥኑልን ባላችሁን መሠረት፣ ይሄው ጨርሰናል፣ በቀጣይ ቀናት የተለያዩ ምሳሌዎችን እና ጥያቄዎችን እናያለን።

ደግሞም በA+ Tutorial ስለ Fallacy ብቻ Out of 30 ቅዳሜ ዕለት Final exam ይኖራቸዋል።

በደንብ አጥኑ፣ ጥያቄዎችን ስሩ! ይሄን ሳምንት በቃ የfallacy ሳምንት ነው😁
ከፍተኛ ውጤት ለሚያመጡ ተማሪዎች ሽልማት አለ።

ደህና ሁኑ በርቱ!

© Tutorial Class

ሊምታቱባችሁ የሚችሉ Fallacyዎች

📍Bandwagon, Vanity, Snobbery

📍Missing the point, Straw man, Red herring

📍Slippery slope and Post hoc ergo propter hoc

📍Begging the question and Suppressed Evidence

📍Composition and Hasty generalization

📍Division and Accident

እነዚህን በደንብ Conceptአቸውን ለይታችሁ እወቁ፣ ከዚያ እያነፃፀራችሁ ጥያቄዎችን ስሩ👍

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የከበዳችሁን ጥያቄ Commentኡ ስር ተጠያየቁ፣ የሚያቀው/የገባው ላልገባው ያስረዳ!👍


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Straw Man Fallacy Examples

1. Lloyd: Can you allow time for more class discussion? Prof. Schwartz: I don't want to give the entire class period over to some aimless bull session.

2. Pro-choice is absurd. How could anyone support killing an innocent human being?

3.Egalitarianism is wrong because it is the same as communism.

4. It's appalling to me that the people who oppose the death penalty believe the lives of convicted murderers are more important than the lives of their victims. This alone shows that the opponents of capital punishment are wrong.

5. Senator Jackson is anti-woman. After all, he voted against anti-pornography legislation, so he is in favor of the sexual and violent exploitation of women.

6. Smith: We must have equal consideration for same sex couples as we do for heterosexual couples. It is unconstitutional to deny rights to these Americans. Jones: If you want men to be able to wear wedding dresses that's fine, but I don't want my tax dollars going to some ridiculous liberal idea.

7. Debra: There is no logical or moral justification for the killing of animals for food. Animals are sentient creatures that deserve the same consideration as humans. Joe: Look, if you want to eat grass like a cow, Bon Appetit! Just let me have my hamburger.

8. Immanuel: When people are happy, they are more inclined to obey the moral law. Knowing this, we can see that we all have an indirect moral obligation to be happy. John: Sure, sure. Let's encourage people to pursue happiness at any price, is that it? But what you don't seem to understand is that one person's unrestrained pursuit of personal happiness can wreak havoc on the personal happiness of others.

9. Inez: The double standard has been as hard on men as it has been on women, since it tends to define masculinity in a very narrow way, and this has restricted men's freedom to explore the full range of their possibilities. Jean: What are you saying, Inez? Do you think women have had all the freedom in the world in this regard? On the contrary, socially sanctioned female roles have been like a straightjacket to women.


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𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑤𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑤𝑒𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑧𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑗𝑒𝑡𝑢 𝑦𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑟
𝐾𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑘𝑎𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑧𝑖ℎ 𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑚𝑜𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛

𝗘𝗻𝗮 𝗱𝗲𝗴𝗺𝗼 𝗺𝗻 𝘆𝗮𝗸𝗹 𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗱𝗮𝗰𝗵𝗶𝗵𝘂𝗻 𝗹𝗲𝗺𝗮𝘄𝗲𝗸 𝘀𝗹𝗲𝗺𝗶𝗿𝗲𝗱𝗮𝗻 𝗴𝗿𝗼𝘂𝗽 𝗹𝗮𝘆 𝗲𝘀𝗸𝗶 𝘁𝗲𝘄𝗲𝘆𝗮𝘆𝘂 𝘁𝗲𝘁𝗲𝘆𝗮𝘆𝗲𝗸𝘂 𝗮𝗯𝗼 𝗺𝗻𝗱𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗺𝗼𝗸 𝗺𝗼𝗸 𝗮𝗱𝗿𝗴𝘂𝘁 𝗲𝗻𝗷𝗶