📚CHAPTER ONE

Propositional Logic and Set Theory

በዚህ ቻፕተር ስር የምናየው:
1⃣ G11 ላይ ስለ ተማራቿቸው ስለ
🎈Proposition logic,
🎈logical connectives, quantifiers
🎈arguments.

2⃣ Elementary class እና G9 ላይ ስለ ተማራቿቸው ስለ፦
🎈set theory and
🎈description of sets and operations of sets

1.1 Propositional Logic
ምን ማለት ነው?🤔
እሺ Definitionኡን በምሳሌ ለማብራራት እንሞክር(ጠጅ በብርሌ ነገር በምሳሌ እንዲሉ😊)

Consider the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number.
b. A triangle has four sides.
c. Freshman Students will go to Campus After Election.
d. May God bless you!
e. Give me that book.

እነዚህን ምሳሌዎች ስናይ a ላይ ያለው True ነው( i think ይሄንን የማያውቅ የለም✅) & b ላይ ያለው ደግሞ False ነው ይህም ታዋቂ ነው).
ነገር ግን እስኪ c'ን እዩት True ወይም False ሊሆን ይችላል፣ አይታወቅም።

💡ስለዚህ 3ቱ Declarative sentence ይባላሉ ማለትም እንዲሁ አይተናቸው እናቃቸዋለን(አለም ሁሉ የሚስማማበት ነው)

የመጨረሻዎቹ(d እና e) ደግሞ Trueም Falseም ሊሆኑ አይችሉም።

💡እነዚህ ደግሞ ምንም Truth Value ስላሌላቸው Non-Declaratives ይባላሉ።

So, ከዚህ ተነስተን Propositionንን እንዴት እናብራራለን?🙋‍♂
🗒Proposition is a sentence that may be asserted or denied. Proposition in this way are different from questions, commands, and exclamations. ይሄ ማለት Proposition ሁሉም ሰው በአንድነት የሚቀበለው ወይም ሁሉም ሰው በአንድነት የማያቀበለው። ማለትም በሌላ መንገድ Proposition Truth Value ያለው Statement ነው።

🔑truth value ማለት True ወይም False ሊባል የሚችል ማለት ነው።

🔑Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T ) or false (denoted by F ).

እየውላችሁ አንዱ Statement, proposition ወይስ አይደለም የሚለውን ለማወቅ የግድ truth valueውን ማወቅ አይጠበቅባቹም። ለምሳሌ The base of logarithm(e) is irrational. ቢባል እኛ ይህንን ላናውቅ እንችላለን🤷‍♂ ግን True ነው።

📖Logical Connectiveness

ይህንን የምታስታዉሱ ከሆነ በG11 Math unit 4 ላይ ተምራቹታል።
Logical connectiveness በብዙ ስም ሊጠራ ይችላል ለምሳሌ logical operators Or Propositional Connectiveness ሊባል ይችላል።

እና Logical Connectiveness ምንድነው?🤔
በአጭሩ "The Operators that link two or more component propositions in order to modify the statement" ማለት እንችላለን።
ማለትም አረፍተ ነገሩን ለማሳመር በአረፍቱ ነገሩ ውስጥ የሚካተቱ አያያዥ ቃላቶች ማለት ነው። እነዚህም👇
🌡"not"
🌡"and"
🌡"or"
🌡"if....then" ወይም "implies"
🌡"if and only if"
እነዚህ አምስቱ ናቸው Logical ወይም Propositional Connectiveness የሚባሉት። እነዚህ እያንዳንዳቸው የሚጠሩበት ስም እና ምልክት አላቸው
ለምሳሌ "Not" Negation ይባላል
ምልክቱ ደግሞ "￢" ነው። Let's see
Them one by one ቀላልም ስለሆኑ
Highlighቱን ነው የምናየው😊

🔖Negation "￢p"
Actually ይሄ Handoutኡ ላይ የለም፣
ነገር ግን ማወቅ ስላለብን ዝምብለን እንይ
let p be a proposition, mean that if p is False negation of p(￢p) is True and the reverse.
እንዲገባን ምሳሌ እንውሰድ👇
p: You are Freshman Student
￢p: You are not Freshman student.(እዚህጋ አሁን not የምትልዋ አረፈተነገሩ Negation መሆኑን ያሳየናል። ያ ማለት መጀመርያ ለነበረው ስቴትመንት ተቃራኒ ትርጉም ይሰጧል።

📖Conjunction
✧When two propositions are joined with the connective "And", the Proposition formed is said logical Conjunction.
✧denoted by "/\"
ቀለለ ምሳሌ ወስደን እናብራራው🗒
p: Man is Mortal 👉True
q: 2 is Odd number 👉False
r: 5 is prime number👉True

እዚህጋ "Find p conjunction q?" ወይም " Find q conjunction r?" ቢል ምንድነው የምናደርገው? Truth
Table በመጠቀም መልሱን ታገኛላችሁ።
ያው Conjunction ማለት statementኦቹ በ"And" ሲያያዙ ነው ብለን ዬለ🤲
True and True 👉True
True and False 👉False
False and True 👉False
False and False 👉False

🙌እነዚህን ቀለልን አድርጋችሁ በአይምሮአችሁ ለመያዝ "እውነትና ሀሰት አንድ ላይ ሲሆኑ መቼም እውነት አይሆኑም" የሚለውን እውነታ ካወቃቹ በቂ ነው። I think አሁን የላይኛውን ምሳሌ መመለስ አይከብዳቹም።

📖Disjunction
✧When two propositions are joined with the connective "Or", the Proposition formed is said logical Disjunction.
✧denoted by "\/"

ከላይ የወሰድነው ምሳሌ ላይ "Find p disjunction q" ወይም
"Find r disjunction p" ከተባልንስ..ኑ ተከተሉኝ ላሳያችሁ😊
ደግሞ Disjunction ማለት Statementኦቹ በ"Or" ሲያያዙ ነው ብለናላ Definition ስንሰጥ።
ቀጥለን Truth Tableኡን እንይ

True or False 👉True
True or True 👉True
False or True 👉True
False or False 👉False

ይህን ለመያዝ ቀላሉ መንገድ ምንድነው?🖇 ቆይ እናንተ ከእውነትና ሀሰት ምረጡ ብትባሉ የቱን ነው የምትመርጡት? እውነት🤷‍♂ እሺ ከሀሰት እና ከሀሰት ምረጡ ብትባሉስ?😁 ሀሰት! ምንም አማራጭ ስለሌላቹ!

በዚህ መሠረት ከላይ ያሉትን ጥያቄ መመለስ ትችላላችሁ!
NB: English ላይ ያለው or እና እዚህ Math ላይ የምንጠቀመው አንድ አይደለም!

📖Implication
✧ When two propositions are joined together with the connective "implies/ if...then" the proposition formed is Logical implication!
✧denoted by p=>q
(Read as p implies q)
✧ ልብ በሉ እዚህ ላይ Truth table ላይ False የሚመጣው p=>q ከሆ
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📚Fallacies of Weak Induction

This types of fallacies usually appears in inductive arguments.
እነዚህ አሳሳች የሆኑ የግምታዊ አስተሳሰብ አመክንዮዎች ናቸው።

Chapter 2 ላይ ባያቿቸው inductive arguments ላይ defect ሲፈጠር Fallacies of weak induction are committed እንላለን።

The premises of the argument may be relevant but not sufficient to establish a conclusion.

9. Appeal to Unqualified Authority
[Argumentum Ad Verecandium]

Sometimes we are in need of the suggestion, comment, advice and information of others that would enable us to reach a conclusion of our own.

However, The person that we relied on to provide the information that we seek might be unreliable.

ይሄ መረጃ ለመስጠት ብቃት የሌለውን ሰው እማኝ ወይም ምስክር ማድረግ ነው።

ለምሳሌ፣ " Dr. Ismail, who is the famous biochemist in this country, told me last night that all economic policies of this country are wrong. It implies thay, this country's Economic policy is wrong."

አያቹ Dr. Ismail በህክምና ትልቅ ስልጣን አለው ማለት ስለ ሌላ ነገር የሰጠው ሃሰብ ትክክል ነው ማለት አይደለም።
ከዚው ጋር ተያይዞ ግን ስለ ኢኮኖሚው ማብራርያውን የሰጠው Economist ቢሆን ኖሮ Appeal to Authority ወይም Appeal to expert opinion ነው የሚባለው።

ስለዚህ ስለማያገባችሁ ወይም በደንብ ስለማታውቁት ነገር ማብራሪያ ከመስጠት ተቆጠቡ😊 So that you do not commit this fallacy😎

10. Appeal to Ignorance
[Argumentum ad ignorantiam]

This Fallacy is committed when one's conclusion is supported by one's own ignorance, lack of evidence or lack of tangible information or knowledge.

ስለ መረጃው ትክክለኛ እውቀት ሳይኖረን እንደምናውቀው ሆነን መደምደሚያ መስጠት። ይሄ Fallacy በሁሉት መንገድ ሊፈጠር ይችላል:-

📌Arguing that something is True Because no one has proved to be false.
(ሀሰት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ እውነት ነው ማለት)

📌Arguing that something is false Because no one Hassan proved it to be True. (እውነት እንደሆነ ስላልተረጋገጠ ውሽት ነው ማለት)

Eg1. "Life After death is real, since no one has proved that there is no such thing as life after death."

Eg2. "Life after death is a myth, because no one yet proved that it is real."

11. Hasty Generalization Fallacy

This fallacy is just the opposite of Accident fallacy.
It is drawing a conclusion or reaching a certain point of generalization from too small evidences.

ከተወሰኑ ወይም ከጥቂት መረጃዎች ብቻ ተነስተን መደምደሚያ ስንሰራ የሚፈጠር የአስተሳሰብ ስህተት ነው።

Eg. "Addis Zemen Gazeta carried an interview to know the reading skill among young people. It has found out that, among ten young people it interviewed, none of them read a book for the last two years. The conclusion is obvious: all young people in the country do not have the culture of reading books."

12) False Cause Fallacy

Is Committed when someone infering causal explanations from premises that do not provide sufficient evidence to it.

የስህተት መንስኤን መረጃ ስናደርግ የሚፈጠር Fallacy ነው። ሶስት አይነት የFalse cause fallacy አይነት አለ

📍Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy

ስሙን ማንበብ ከበዳቹአ😂

This fallacy is committed when we arrive at a certain conclusion by claiming that one thing is the cause of another thing Because it preceds by the time.

ለምሳሌ፣ "ፈተና ላይ ሆናችሁ ወደ ክላስ እየሄዳችሁ የሞተ ጥቁር ዶሮ 🧟መንገድ ላይ ካያቹ ከዚያ ያንን ፈተና ከ3/10 ብታመጡ ያ ዶሮ ነው እንዲ ያረገኝ ስትሉ😁" ይህ post hoc...ነው።

ሌላ ምሳሌ " Ever since we quit going to church, our business has been going to worse. If we start attending church our business would become good"

📍Non causa pro causa fallacy

🔖Not the cause for the cause ማለት ነው።
መንስኤ መሆን የማይገባው መንስኤ ሆኖ ሲወሰድ።

Eg1. "እሷ ድሃ ናት ምክንያቱም ጠንቋይ ረግሟታል"😔

Eg2. "What makes Africans poor is because they are black people."

📍OverSimplified cause fallacy

አንድ ነገር ለመከሰቱ ብዙ ምክንያቶች እያሉት አንዱን ብቻ ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

Eg. "Don't worry; she will be all right from her abdominal sicknes. I gave her good advices"
ስለመከራት ብቻም አይሻላትም፣ ነገር ግን ከህመሟ እንድታገግም ምክር እንዱ ምክንያት ሊሆን ይችላል።

13. Slippery Slope Fallacy

🔖is a species of negative reasoning from consequences, used where two parties are deliberating together and one warns the other not to take a contemplated action.

ለተከሰቱት ሁኔታዎች ሁሉ ወይም መጨረሻ ላይ ለደረሰው ከባድ ችግር የመጀመሪያውን ምክንያት ተጠያቂ ማድረግ።

ለሜሳሌ:-
Student: I do have a question, teacher.
Teacher: I will not allow you to ask me because, If I allow you to ask me, others will start asking me and as a result I will not have enough time for my lecture.

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❇️ GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY PPT SHORT NOTE

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❇️General Physics ppt Short Note

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📚 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

📚 CHAPTER TWO

❇️ በጣም ገራሚ SHORT NOTE

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𝐁𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐲𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐓𝐨𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐰 𝐈 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐩𝐬𝐲𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐞


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𝐒𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐁𝐞 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲



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📚Anthropology Course

📖What is Anthropology?

📍It is a Subject that enables human beings to deal with themes such as culture, kinship(ዝምድና፣ጠንካራ ትስስር), marriage, cultural relativism, ethnocentrism, humanity(ሰውነት), human origins, cosmologies, race, ethnicity, ethnic relations, ethnic boundaries....

ለመግቢያ ያክል Anthropology ካላይ በዘረዘርናቸው ነገሮች ላይ ትኩረት ያደርጋል ካልን፣ አሁን የModuleኡን Content ደግሞ እንየው፦ በአጠቃላይ Anthropology Freshman Course 7 Chapter አለው!

ነገር ግን Generally Focus የሚያደርገው በሚከተሉት ላይ ነው፦

📍Scope of Anthropology
📍Branches of Anthropology
📍Unique features of Anthropology and
📍 Research methods in Anthropology


📖Unit One

🗒Introducing Anthropology and its Subject Matter

በዚህ Chapter ስር ስለ Anthropology ምንነት በሰፊው እናያለን፣ ትርጉሙን፣ ስፋቱን (ምን ምን እንደሚያጠቃል/Scope)፣ የAnthropologyን Subfeildኦች፣ መሰረታዊ የሆኑትን የAnthropology መርሆች እናያለን።

🔖Concepts in Anthropology

📍The term anthropology is a compound of two Greek Words
'anthropos' and
'logos'.

"Anthropos" ማለት 'Human being/Man kind) ሲሆን

"Logos" ማለት ደግሞ እንደምታውቁት "Study/Sceince/" ማለት ነው።

So, In General 'Anthropology means
The study or science of humankind or humanity.'

ስለዚህ በቀላሉ Anthropology ምንድነው ከተባለ ስለ ሰውነት (humanity) የሚያጠና ሳይንስ ነው ብለን መመለስ እንችላለን።

Definitionኡን በጣም Precise አድርገን (አጥብበን) ደግሞ ካየነው፦

📌Anthropology is the study of people---their origins, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever they have been found.

አያቹአ ስለ ሰው ልጅ መፈጠር🐣፣ ስለ እድገቱ🐥፣ ከዚያ ደግሞ የሰው ልጆች ልዩነት (በዘር፣ በቋንቋ..) እነዚህን እና የመሳሰሉትን ጉዳዮች ይዳስሳል።

📌የAnthropology Scope ሰፊ ነው።👇👇
It is the study of humans as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of development.

አያቹ ይህን👆 ሁሉ ነገር ነው በውስጥ ያጠቃለለው [የሰው ልጅ ከተፈጠረበት አንስቶ እስካሁን ያለውን ያጠናል]


🔖The Historical Development of Anthropology

Anthropology did not arise as a science until the 1850s. Anthropology እንደ Science of Humanity መቆጠር የጀመረው በተለምዶ ምዕራባውያን "The West" ብለን በምንጠራቸው፣ Specifically ደግሞ France🇫🇷, Great Britain🇦🇺, USA🇺🇸 and Germany🇩🇪!

Historically Speaking, We can say that Anthropology is European discipline.

📖Generally speaking, anthropology as an academic discipline was born during the 19th century, out of the intellectual atmosphere of Enlightenment, which is the eighteenth century social philosophical movement.

ስለዚህ Anthropology 19th Century ውስጥ ሲወለድ መሠረቱ "Enlightment" እና "Darwin Theory of Evolution" ነበሩ።

📌Ethnography  is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures.
Ethnography ማለት የአንድን ግለሰብ🧔/ማህበረሰብ👨‍👨‍👧‍👧 ባህል ሳይንሳዊ በሆነ መንገድ ማጥናት ማለት ነው። ለምሳሌ፣ የሀገራችንን ባህል ማጥናት የፈለገ Anthropologist👨‍💼 መጥቶ በእኛ መካካል እየኖረ፣ ከእኛ ጋር እየበላ እየጠጣ..ባህላችንን ሲያጠና Enthnographic research ይባላል።

📌Ethnology is the comparative study of two or more cultures.
ይህ ደግሞ የተለያዩ ማህበረሰብን ባህል እያነፃፀራችሁ ስታጠኑ ምናምን Ethnology ይባላል።

📚Sub-fields of anthropology

There are four major sub-fields:

📍Physical/Biological Anthropology
📍Archeology
📍Linguistic Anthropology 📍Socio-Cultural Anthropology

1⃣Physical/Biological Anthropology

This branch Seek to understand how humans adapt to different environments, what causes disease and early death, and how humans evolved from other animals.

አንብባችሁታላ☝️ They are also interested in how biology and culture work together to shape our lives.

It has two broad Areas of investigation:

📌Human evolution is the study of the gradual processes of simple forms into more differentiated structures in hominid.

ይህም ብዙ sub branch አለው፣ ነገር ግን Major የሆኑት 2 አሉ።
1. Paleoanthropology is the study of human evolution through the fossil and archaeological records.
🔖ቀድሞ Record ተደርገው የተቀመጡትን መረጃዎች በመጠቀመ ስለ ሰው ልጅ Evolution ስናጠና ማለት ነው።

2. Primatology is the study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and taxonomy of nonhuman [gorillas, Chimpanzees] primates.

📌Human Genetics It focuses to examine the genetic materials of an organism such as DNA and RNA.
ይህ የሚያጠናው የሰው ልጅ የፊቱ መልክ፣ ቁመናው፣ በአጠቃላይ genetic ነገሩ ምናምን እንዴትና ለምን እንደዚያ እንደ ሆነ ነው።

2⃣Archaeological Anthropology

🔖Studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analysing the material culture/physical
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1.3 Unique/Basic Features of Anthropology

📌What Makes Anthropology Unique?

Anthropologyን ከሌሎች ተመሳሳይ Subjectኦች የሚለየው ነገር ምንድነው ካልን፣ የሚከተሉት ዋነኞቹ ናቸው፦
📌Its Scope
📌Its Approach
📌Its Focus
📌Its Method of Study.

1. Its Scope: Anthropology has broad Scope. It is the broad study of human kind, around the world and throughout time.

ከዚህ በፊት እንዳየነው Anthropology የሚያጠነጥነው (ይሄ word..😂) ብዙ ነገሮች ላይ ነው። ይህም ከሌሎች disciplineኦች ልዩ ያደርጓል።

2. Its Approach: In its approach anthropology is holistic, relativistic, and focused one.

📍Holistic: Holism means that an anthropologist looks at the entire context of a society when analysing any specific feature.
ለምሳሌ: አንድ Anthropologist👨‍💼 ስለ ኢትዮጵያ የቡና ስረዓት ማወቅ ከፈለገ የሀገሪቱን ባህል፣ ሃይማኖት፣ ታሪክ👑 በስፋት ማጥናት ይኖርበታል። ይህ ነው Holism የሚያስብለው።
📍Relativistic: Anthropology አንድን እምነት፣ ባህል...ሲያብራራ በራሱ Context ውስጥ ሆኖ ነው፣ ማለት ይህ ባህል መጥፎ ነው🙅‍♂ ወይም ጥሩ ነው💁‍♂ በሎ Judge አያረግም።
📍Focused: Anthropological studies give attention to how people perceive themselves and understand their world. ይሄኛውን አይነት Perspective Anthropologistኦች "Emic Perspective" ብለው ይጠሩታል።

3. Its Method of Study: Anthropology is highly dependent on qualitative research (quantitative ካለ እንዳትሸወዱ😎) to understand the meaning behind any human activity.

📖Misconceptions about anthropology

እስኪ የተለያዩ ሰዎች ስለ Anthropology ያላቸውን የተሳሳተ መረዳት እንመልከት፣

📌Anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive"👴 societies.
ነገር ግን ይህ ትክክል አይደለም! Anthropology ስለ ጥንት/ስለ ቀደሙት ሰዎች/ነገሮች ብቻ ሳይሆን በአሁን ዘመን ስላሉትም👱‍♂ የሚያጠና ነው!

📌Anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas.
ነገር ግን ስለ urban Peoples እና ስለ urban areasም ያጠናል [Urban Anthropology].

📌Anthropology is the study/analysis of fossil evidences of the proto-humans like that of Lucy/Dinkeneshe.
ስለ እነዚህም ያጠናል ነገር ግን anthropology ስለ human Evolution ብቻ ነው የሚያጠናው ካልን ስህተት ነው።

እነዚህና የመሳሰሉት ማብራርያቸው ስለ anthropology የተሳሳቱ ናቸው! ድንገት ፈተና ላይ ከመጡ miss ልታረጓቸው አይገባም!👌

በቀጣይ Chapter 2 እንገባለን!🤗

ጥያቄ የሆነባችሁ ካለ


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