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What Happens if a Supervolcano Blows Up?

The Earth is a gigantic ball of semi-molten rock, with a heart of iron as hot as the surface of the Sun. Titanic amounts of heat left over from its birth and the radioactive decay of trillions of tons of radioactive elements find no escape but up. Currents of rock spanning thousands of kilometers carry this energy to the surface. Earthโ€™s crust is the only thing in their way. It feels solid to us, but it is only a fragile barrier, an apple skin around a flaming behemoth.

True apocalypses can break through and unleash eruptions tens of times more powerful than all of our nuclear weapons combined, subjecting the climate to centuries worth of change in a single year, while drowning continents in toxic ash and gases: supervolcanoes.

How big can they get? And will they put an end to humanity?

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This is what youโ€™ve waited for.

Journey with us through Webbโ€™s breathtaking view of the Pillars of Creation, where scores of newly formed stars glisten like dewdrops among floating, translucent columns of gas and dust.

โ€First, direct your attention to the tips of the pillars, many of which appear tinged with fiery โ€œlava.โ€ Here, young stars periodically shoot out jets of material that collide with the pillars, which can then form wavy patterns. Energetic hydrogen molecules create that red glow.

โ€Also near the edges of the pillars are tiny red orbs. These are the baby stars of the show, only a few hundred thousand years old!

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If this majestic landscape looks familiar, you may recognize the original. Here, Hubblesโ€™s iconic view, taken in visible light, is on the left. Webb โ€œseesโ€ in infrared light invisible to our eyes, allowing it to pierce through the dust and reveal stars galore (right).

โ€Why go back to where weโ€™ve been before? Webbโ€™s new look identifies far more precise counts of newborn stars, along with the quantities of gas and dust. This will help us build a clearer understanding of how stars form and burst out of these dusty clouds over millions of years.

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Pillars of Creation (NIRCam)

The Pillars of Creation are set off in a kaleidoscope of color in NASAโ€™s James Webb Space Telescopeโ€™s near-infrared-light view. The pillars look like arches and spires rising out of a desert landscape, but are filled with semi-transparent gas and dust, and ever changing. This is a region where young stars are forming โ€“ or have barely burst from their dusty cocoons as they continue to form.

Newly formed stars are the scene-stealers in this Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) image. These are the bright red orbs that sometimes appear with eight diffraction spikes. When knots with sufficient mass form within the pillars, they begin to collapse under their own gravity, slowly heat up, and eventually begin shining brightly.

Along the edges of the pillars are wavy lines that look like lava. These are ejections from stars that are still forming. Young stars periodically shoot out supersonic jets that can interact within clouds of material, like these thick pillars of gas and dust. This sometimes also results in bow shocks, which can form wavy patterns like a boat does as it moves through water. These young stars are estimated to be only a few hundred thousand years old, and will continue to form for millions of years.


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Pillars of Creation (Hubble and Webb Images Side by Side)

NASA's Hubble Space Telescope made the Pillars of Creation famous with its first image in 1995, but revisited the scene in 2014 to reveal a sharper, wider view in visible light, shown above at left.

A new, near-infrared-light view from NASAโ€™s James Webb Space Telescope, at right, helps us peer through more of the dust in this star-forming region. The thick, dusty brown pillars are no longer as opaque and many more red stars that are still forming come into view.

While the pillars of gas and dust seem darker and less penetrable in Hubbleโ€™s view, they appear more diaphanous in Webbโ€™s.

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During sleep, one brain region teaches another, converting novel data into enduring memories

In research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, they show that as the brain cycles through slow-wave and rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep, which happens about five times a night, the hippocampus teaches the neocortex what it learned, transforming novel, fleeting information into enduring memory.

This is not just a model of learning in local circuits in the brain. It's how one brain region can teach another brain region during sleep, a time when there is no guidance from the external world," says Schapiro, an assistant professor in Penn's Department of Psychology. "It's also a proposal for how we learn gracefully over time as our environment changes."

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New technique for decoding people's thoughts can now be done from a distance

Past mind-reading techniques relied on implanting electrodes deep in peoples' brains. The new method, described in a report posted 29 Sept. to the preprint database bioRxiv, instead relies on a noninvasive brain scanning technique called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

fMRI tracks the flow of oxygenated blood through the brain, and because active brain cells need more energy and oxygen, this information provides an indirect measure of brain activity.

By its nature, this scanning method cannot capture real-time brain activity, since the electrical signals released by brain cells move much more quickly than blood moves through the brain.

But remarkably, the study authors found that they could still use this imperfect proxy measure to decode the semantic meaning of people's thoughts, although they couldn't produce word-for-word translations.

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๐Ÿš€ Launch!

The NASA SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft launched the Artemis I test flight to the Moon from Kennedyโ€™s Launch Complex 39B earlier today.

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NASA shared their first photos of the Artemis I launch
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Artemis I riding a column of fire from two solid rocket boosters and four RS-25 engines on its way to the Moon

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Liftoff of Artemis I to the Moon
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Incredible views of booster separation from one of the tracking cameras at Patrick Space Force Base!

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Solid rocket booster separation and burnout as the SLS core stage continues toward delivering Orion to orbit.

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