دفترچه راهنمای نهمین امتحان مشترک فراگیر دستگاه های اجرایی سال 1400

#آزمون_استخدامی

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continuation


☑️ pure research

✔️ pure research is, in simple terms , research for the sake of research .

✔️ this kind of research is conducted to find out the relationship among different factors.

✔️ a pure reasercher is not very much concerned with the applications or implications of his findings to the real world .

⬇️

he tries to uncover new relaions , to add to human body of knowledge , and to formulate generalizations and laws .





☑️ applied research

✔️ applied reaserch , on other hand , attempts to utilize the findings of the pure reaserch.

✔️ an applied researcher tries to apply the findings of pure reaserchers to the real world.

✔️ applied reaserchers are mainly responsible for the good or the evil of the findings.


⭕️ for example,the discovery of nuclear power was the outcome of pure research. Its application , however , whether to produce nuclear bombs for destructive purposes or nuclear rays for humanitarian purposes is the responsibility of applied researchers .



#research

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سوالات بخش تخصصی کنکور دکتری ۱۴۰۱

سوالات بخش عمومی کنکور دکتری ۱۴۰۱

Language assessment
Douglas Brown

#testing

An introduction to sociolinguistics
Wardhaugh & Fuller

#linguistics

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Language assessment
Douglas Brown , 2018

#testing

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@elt_program

different types of aphasia:


✔️ agraphia is difficulty in writing;


✔️ alexia is difficulty in reading;


✔️ anomia is difficulty in using proper nouns;


✔️ agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions, articles, etc.



#linguistics

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💢 Sign and sign systems 💢

points :


✔️ sign : an intersection or relationship of form and meaning .

⬇️

form = concrete

meaning = mental or cognitive


✔️ a sign is neither form nor meaning, but simultaneously both .


✔️ communication : use of signs


✔️ language : the customary sign system of humankind .


⭕️ types of signs


1⃣ icon : an icon is a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning.


2⃣ index : an index is a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in nature with its meaning.


3⃣ symbol : a symbol is a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with its meaning.



❇️ evidence for the symbolic nature of linguistic signs :


1⃣ translation equivalents

2⃣ synonyms

3⃣ iconically expressible meanings



#linguistics

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💢 Six aspects of the general nature of language 💢


1⃣ arbitrariness

the forms of morphemes are only arbitrarily related to their meanings .




2⃣ displacement

displacement is the characteristic that in languages meanings are expressed which are " displaced " or removed from the concrete or physical presence of the object or stimulus, outside the individual, of those meanings.

⬇️

like " past " and " future "

⭕️ even taking about hypothetical things like " golden mountains "




3⃣ creativity

creativity is the characteristic of languages that they readily and regularly permit the expression of new meanings.

⬇️

in fact , the finite forms of language are able to express a non-finite ( unbounded ) number of meanings.


⭕️ the creativity of language is owed particularly to the two properties of openness and recursion.





4⃣ duality

duality is the characteristic of linguistic signs that these have a two-part or dual structure , in which the meaningful whole is made up of meaningless parts .

⬇️

morphemes, that is , are meaningful , but phones and features which make up the phones are meaningless .




5⃣ grammaticality

grammaticality is the characteristic of languages that they have rather strict rules about how things may be said .

⬇️

only certain sounds may be combined in words , and meanings have to be combined in certain ways , in words and sentences.


⭕️ utterances in the language which follow the rules are said to be grammatical and those which don't follow the rules are ungrammatical.




6⃣ cultural transmission

languages differ from place to place in the world , and we have to learn the form appropriate for the place . This learning is called cultural transmission.


⭕️ if languages were completely instinctive or innate ( genetically encoded in us ) , like knowing how to swallow, digest , or to recognize faces , languages wouldn't differ this way , and we wouldn't need to learn them .



#linguistics

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📚 Deductive presentation


📎 Advantages


✔️ it is a quicker and easier way to teach the rule to learners.


✔️ it confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly adult learners or analytical learners who want to know ‘what they are studying’.


✔️ time-saving ( explaining rules is usually quicker than guessing from examples). The class time can be used for more practice.




📎 Disadvantages


✔️ grammar explanation tends to be teacher-fronted and does not actively involve learners.


✔️ grammat explanation might be cognitively demanding for young learners.


✔️ starting with grammar explanation might demotivate learners.


✔️ it leads to the belief that language involves just knowing the rules.



#teaching

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📚 Inductive presentation


📎 Advantages


✔️ discovering rules by learners is likely to lead to more ‘meaningful, memorable, and serviceable’ knowledge.


✔️ it involves greater depth of processing which assists memory.


✔️it encourages the students' active involvement in grammar learning.


✔️ it is more challenging than simply receiving explanations.


✔️ it can be done collaboratively in the classroom.


✔️ figuring out the rule by themselves might encourage learner autonomy.




📎 Disadvantages


✔️ time-consuming _ it takes up time better spent on practice.


✔️ inferring rules might might result in the learners misunderstanding the rule.


✔️ it places high demands on teachers for class preparation.



#teaching

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💢 Characteristics of quantitative research


✔️ obtrusive, involving controlled measurement

✔️ objective and removed from the data

✔️ verification-oriented, confirmatory

✔️ outcome-oriented

✔️ reliable, involving “hard” and replicable data

✔️ generalizable

✔️ assuming a stable reality


#research

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💢 Characteristics of qualitative research


✔️ naturalistic and controlled observation

✔️ subjective

✔️ discovery-oriented

✔️ process-oriented

✔️ “soft” data

✔️ ungeneralizable, single case studies

✔️ assuming a dynamic reality

✔️ close to the data


#research

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💢 Constructs


📌 Constructs are abstractions that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical data and building theories.

Examples :

⭕️ motivation

⭕️ anxiety

⭕️ reading readiness

⭕️ underachievement

⭕️ creativity

⭕️ self-efficacy


Constructs may be defined in two ways:

1⃣ a constitutive definition, which gives their general meaning, like a dictionary type of definition.


2⃣ an operational definition gives meaning to a construct by specifying the operations that researchers would perform to measure or manipulate the construct.


#research

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Researchers, especially quantitative researchers, study variables and the relationships that exist among them.

⬇️

variable is a construct or a characteristic that can take on different values or scores across people or things.


Examples:

⭕️ Height

⭕️ weight

⭕️ intelligence

⭕️ vocabulary

⭕️ scores

⭕️ gender



💠 Types of Variables

There are several ways to classify variables.

💢 Variables can be categorical, or they can be continuous .

✔️ When researchers classify subjects by sorting them into mutually exclusive groups, the attribute on which they base the classification is called a categorical variable .

Examples:

📍Home language

📍father’s occupation

📍marital status

📍state of birth


✔️ The simplest type of categorical variable has only two mutually exclusive classes and is called a dichotomous variable.

Examples:

📎 pass–fail

📎 citizen–immigrant

📎 in-state or out-of state resident


✔️ When a variable has an infinite number of values within a range, it is a continuous variable.

Examples:

🌀Height

🌀weight

🌀age

🌀achievement test score



💢 Another important classification is whether the variable in a study is the independent variable or a dependent variable.


✔️ The independent variable is the antecedent variable that an investigator manipulates in order to determine its effect on another variable called the dependent variable.


✔️ The dependent variable is the variable we observe and measure.



🔳 Constants

✔️ The opposite of variable is constant ➡️ a constant is a fixed value within a study.

#research

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💢 Educational Research Methods


1⃣ quantitative research ➡️ research that gathers numeric data through controlled procedures and analyses to answer predetermined questions or test hypotheses.


2⃣ qualitative research ➡️ a generic term for a variety of research approaches that generally gather nonnumeric data to study phenomena, without predetermined hypotheses.


3⃣ mixed methods research ➡️ combining quantitative and qualitative research in different ways with each approach adding something to the understanding of the phenomenon.




Quantitative :

✔️purpose : to study relationships; cause and effect

✔️design : developed prior to study

✔️approach : deductive; tests theory

✔️ tools : uses preselected instruments

✔️sample : uses large samples

✔️analysis : statistical analysis of numeric data




Qualitative :

✔️purpose : to examine a phenomenon as it is, in rich detail

✔️design : flexible; evolves during study

✔️approach : inductive; may generate theory

✔️tools : the researcher is primary data collection tool

✔️sample : uses small samples

✔️analysis : narrative description and interpretation


#research

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💢Quantitative research


Kinds : 1⃣ experimental research

2⃣ nonexperimental research




🌀 Experimental Research

research in which the investigator manipulates one or more independent variables (the treatment) and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables.





🌀 Nonexperimental Research

1⃣ Ex post facto research ➡️ a type of research that attempts to determine the causes for, or the consequences of, differences that already exist in groups of individuals .

⬇️

✔️ the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable.

✔️ it has already occurred in the natural course of events.



2⃣ Correlational Research ➡️ research that attempts to determine the extent and the direction of the relationship between two or more variables.

⬇️

✔️the investigator gathers data from a group of individuals on two (or more) variables and then seeks to determine if the variables are related (correlated).


✔️ the relationship between the variables is expressed by a statistic called the coefficient of correlation.


✔️a positive correlation shows that high values on one variable are associated with high values on the other.


✔️a negative correlation means that high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on the other variable.


✔️It can range from +1.00 (perfect positive) through 0 indicating no relationship to -1.00, a perfect negative relationship.



3⃣ Survey Research ➡️ surveys use instruments such as questionnaires and interviews to gather data from groups of individuals.


#research

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