📚Types of classroom listening performance
1⃣ Reactive
✔️ Sometimes you want a learner simply to listen to the surface structure of an utterance for the sole purpose of repeating it back to you.
✔️ This role of the listener as merely a “tape recorder” is very limited because the listener is not generating meaning.
2⃣ Intensive
✔️ Techniques whose only purpose is to focus on components (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.) of discourse may be considered to be intensive.
3⃣ Responsive
✔️ A significant proportion of classroom listening activity consists of short stretches of teacher language designed to elicit immediate responses. The students’ task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to fashion an appropriate reply.
4⃣ Selective
✔️ In longer stretches of discourse such as monologues of a couple of minutes or considerably longer, the task of the student is not to process everything that was said, but rather to scan the material selectively for certain information.
5⃣ Extensive
✔️This sort of performance, unlike the intensive processing (item 2) described above, aims to develop a top-down, global understanding of spoken language.
6⃣ Interactive
✔️ Finally, there is listening performance that can include all five of the above types as learners actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, and other pair and group work. Their listening performance must be intricately integrated with speaking (and perhaps other) skills in the authentic give and take of communicative interchange.
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1⃣ Reactive
✔️ Sometimes you want a learner simply to listen to the surface structure of an utterance for the sole purpose of repeating it back to you.
✔️ This role of the listener as merely a “tape recorder” is very limited because the listener is not generating meaning.
2⃣ Intensive
✔️ Techniques whose only purpose is to focus on components (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.) of discourse may be considered to be intensive.
3⃣ Responsive
✔️ A significant proportion of classroom listening activity consists of short stretches of teacher language designed to elicit immediate responses. The students’ task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to fashion an appropriate reply.
4⃣ Selective
✔️ In longer stretches of discourse such as monologues of a couple of minutes or considerably longer, the task of the student is not to process everything that was said, but rather to scan the material selectively for certain information.
5⃣ Extensive
✔️This sort of performance, unlike the intensive processing (item 2) described above, aims to develop a top-down, global understanding of spoken language.
6⃣ Interactive
✔️ Finally, there is listening performance that can include all five of the above types as learners actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, and other pair and group work. Their listening performance must be intricately integrated with speaking (and perhaps other) skills in the authentic give and take of communicative interchange.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
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📚 Speech-processing theory distinguishes between two types of processing in both listening and reading comprehension :
🔘 Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings, and so on, to a final “message.”
🔘 Top-down processing is evoked from “a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations” and other background information (schemata) that the listener brings to the text.
⬇️
💢 Bottom-up techniques typically focus on the “bits and pieces” of language, breaking language into component parts and giving them central focus.
💢 Top-down techniques are more concerned with the activation of schemata, with deriving meaning, with global understanding, and with the interpretation of a text.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
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🔘 Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings, and so on, to a final “message.”
🔘 Top-down processing is evoked from “a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations” and other background information (schemata) that the listener brings to the text.
⬇️
💢 Bottom-up techniques typically focus on the “bits and pieces” of language, breaking language into component parts and giving them central focus.
💢 Top-down techniques are more concerned with the activation of schemata, with deriving meaning, with global understanding, and with the interpretation of a text.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Sources of Knowledge
1⃣ Deductive Reasoning
✔️ Aristotle introduced the use of deductive reasoning, which is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific knowledge through logical argument.
✔️ A major type of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion.
Example:
“All men are mortal” (major premise)
“The king is a man” (minor premise)
“Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion).
✔️In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
2⃣ Inductive Reasoning
✔️ Bacon believed that investigators should not accept premises handed down by the Church Fathers as absolute truth. Rather, investigators should establish conclusions based on facts gathered through direct observation.
⬇️
In Bacon’s system, an investigator made observations on particular events in a class or category, and then made inferences about the whole class or category on the basis of the observations.
✔️ In the 19th century, scholars began to integrate the most important aspects of the inductive and deductive methods into a new technique, namely the inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
#research
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1⃣ Deductive Reasoning
✔️ Aristotle introduced the use of deductive reasoning, which is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific knowledge through logical argument.
✔️ A major type of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion.
Example:
“All men are mortal” (major premise)
“The king is a man” (minor premise)
“Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion).
✔️In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
2⃣ Inductive Reasoning
✔️ Bacon believed that investigators should not accept premises handed down by the Church Fathers as absolute truth. Rather, investigators should establish conclusions based on facts gathered through direct observation.
⬇️
In Bacon’s system, an investigator made observations on particular events in a class or category, and then made inferences about the whole class or category on the basis of the observations.
✔️ In the 19th century, scholars began to integrate the most important aspects of the inductive and deductive methods into a new technique, namely the inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📌 Competence
✔️one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact.
✔️ Competence is the nonobservable ability to do something, to perform something.
✔️ In reference to language, competence is one’s underlying knowledge of the system of a language —its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together.
✔️ competence is not a list or set of rules and grammatical forms, but instead a complex interaction of abstract constraints and principles of language that interact to make sentences look the way they look to us.
📌 Performance
✔️ overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence.
✔️ It is the actual doing of something: walking, singing, dancing, speaking. In reference to language, performance refers to the individual’s actual language use.
⬇️
It is actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events
✔️ a mature speaker of a language (e.g., English) might make an error and produce an utterance such as ‘I will be home yesterday’.
⬇️
performance errors like these are fairly common in adult speech and can result from such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors, and hesitation phenomena, such as repeats, false starts, pauses, omissions, and additions.
✔️Chomsky likened competence to an ‘idealized’ speaker-hearer who does not display such performance variables.
#teaching
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✔️one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact.
✔️ Competence is the nonobservable ability to do something, to perform something.
✔️ In reference to language, competence is one’s underlying knowledge of the system of a language —its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together.
✔️ competence is not a list or set of rules and grammatical forms, but instead a complex interaction of abstract constraints and principles of language that interact to make sentences look the way they look to us.
📌 Performance
✔️ overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence.
✔️ It is the actual doing of something: walking, singing, dancing, speaking. In reference to language, performance refers to the individual’s actual language use.
⬇️
It is actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events
✔️ a mature speaker of a language (e.g., English) might make an error and produce an utterance such as ‘I will be home yesterday’.
⬇️
performance errors like these are fairly common in adult speech and can result from such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors, and hesitation phenomena, such as repeats, false starts, pauses, omissions, and additions.
✔️Chomsky likened competence to an ‘idealized’ speaker-hearer who does not display such performance variables.
#teaching
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📚 Types of research
1⃣ Secondary research
✔️ a type of research which is based on sources or data that are one step removed from the original information.
⬇️
they refer to the sources and data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
2⃣ Primary research
✔️ It is a type of research in which researchers gather original data (primary data) to answer a particular research question. When researchers gather first-hand data, the outcome is knowledge nobody had before.
#research
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1⃣ Secondary research
✔️ a type of research which is based on sources or data that are one step removed from the original information.
⬇️
they refer to the sources and data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
2⃣ Primary research
✔️ It is a type of research in which researchers gather original data (primary data) to answer a particular research question. When researchers gather first-hand data, the outcome is knowledge nobody had before.
#research
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📚 Types of Hypotheses
1⃣ directional hypothesis
✔️it states the direction of the predicted relationship or difference between the groups
✔️ example : “Children who show high achievement motivation will have higher anxiety scores on the Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale than will children with low achievement motivation”
2⃣ nondirectional hypothesis
✔️it states that there is a relationship or a difference between the groups but does not specify the direction of that difference.
✔️ example : “Achievement motivation and anxiety level are related”
3⃣ null hypothesis (symbolized as H0)
✔️ it states that there is no relationship between the variables or no statistically significant differences between the groups in the study.
✔️ example : “There is no relationship between children’s achievement motivation and their anxiety level in the population.”
#research
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1⃣ directional hypothesis
✔️it states the direction of the predicted relationship or difference between the groups
✔️ example : “Children who show high achievement motivation will have higher anxiety scores on the Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale than will children with low achievement motivation”
2⃣ nondirectional hypothesis
✔️it states that there is a relationship or a difference between the groups but does not specify the direction of that difference.
✔️ example : “Achievement motivation and anxiety level are related”
3⃣ null hypothesis (symbolized as H0)
✔️ it states that there is no relationship between the variables or no statistically significant differences between the groups in the study.
✔️ example : “There is no relationship between children’s achievement motivation and their anxiety level in the population.”
#research
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📚 Kinds of Research
🔴 exploratory research
✔️exploratory research is to explore the mysteries of the universe.
✔️ probably most research projects were initially exploratory since no precedent had been available.
✔️ many discoveries and inventions have been partially the outcome of exploratory research.
✔️ conducting exploratory research is quite difficult because there is no helpful guideline for the reasercher to follow.
✔️ in some instances, the researchers follow a trial and error procedure to find out something about an unknown phenomenon.
🔴 confirmatory research
✔️ confirmatory research refers to exact or partial replication of previous research in order to consolidate already discovered facts and relations among facts .
✔️ in the field of language education, most research projects are either partial or complete replication of the previous research ➡️ the reason is the diversity of variables and factors involved in language and language-related areas.
#research
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🔴 exploratory research
✔️exploratory research is to explore the mysteries of the universe.
✔️ probably most research projects were initially exploratory since no precedent had been available.
✔️ many discoveries and inventions have been partially the outcome of exploratory research.
✔️ conducting exploratory research is quite difficult because there is no helpful guideline for the reasercher to follow.
✔️ in some instances, the researchers follow a trial and error procedure to find out something about an unknown phenomenon.
🔴 confirmatory research
✔️ confirmatory research refers to exact or partial replication of previous research in order to consolidate already discovered facts and relations among facts .
✔️ in the field of language education, most research projects are either partial or complete replication of the previous research ➡️ the reason is the diversity of variables and factors involved in language and language-related areas.
#research
@Eltprogram
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EmpN9_Note_v1.pdf
13.1 MB
دفترچه راهنمای نهمین امتحان مشترک فراگیر دستگاه های اجرایی سال 1400
#آزمون_استخدامی
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ELT Program channel
📚 Kinds of Research 🔴 exploratory research ✔️exploratory research is to explore the mysteries of the universe. ✔️ probably most research projects were initially exploratory since no precedent had been available. ✔️ many discoveries and inventions…
continuation
☑️ pure research
✔️ pure research is, in simple terms , research for the sake of research .
✔️ this kind of research is conducted to find out the relationship among different factors.
✔️ a pure reasercher is not very much concerned with the applications or implications of his findings to the real world .
⬇️
he tries to uncover new relaions , to add to human body of knowledge , and to formulate generalizations and laws .
☑️ applied research
✔️ applied reaserch , on other hand , attempts to utilize the findings of the pure reaserch.
✔️ an applied researcher tries to apply the findings of pure reaserchers to the real world.
✔️ applied reaserchers are mainly responsible for the good or the evil of the findings.
⭕️ for example,the discovery of nuclear power was the outcome of pure research. Its application , however , whether to produce nuclear bombs for destructive purposes or nuclear rays for humanitarian purposes is the responsibility of applied researchers .
#research
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☑️ pure research
✔️ pure research is, in simple terms , research for the sake of research .
✔️ this kind of research is conducted to find out the relationship among different factors.
✔️ a pure reasercher is not very much concerned with the applications or implications of his findings to the real world .
⬇️
he tries to uncover new relaions , to add to human body of knowledge , and to formulate generalizations and laws .
☑️ applied research
✔️ applied reaserch , on other hand , attempts to utilize the findings of the pure reaserch.
✔️ an applied researcher tries to apply the findings of pure reaserchers to the real world.
✔️ applied reaserchers are mainly responsible for the good or the evil of the findings.
⭕️ for example,the discovery of nuclear power was the outcome of pure research. Its application , however , whether to produce nuclear bombs for destructive purposes or nuclear rays for humanitarian purposes is the responsibility of applied researchers .
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
different types of aphasia:
✔️ agraphia is difficulty in writing;
✔️ alexia is difficulty in reading;
✔️ anomia is difficulty in using proper nouns;
✔️ agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions, articles, etc.
#linguistics
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✔️ agraphia is difficulty in writing;
✔️ alexia is difficulty in reading;
✔️ anomia is difficulty in using proper nouns;
✔️ agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions, articles, etc.
#linguistics
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
💢 Sign and sign systems 💢
points :
✔️ sign : an intersection or relationship of form and meaning .
⬇️
form = concrete
meaning = mental or cognitive
✔️ a sign is neither form nor meaning, but simultaneously both .
✔️ communication : use of signs
✔️ language : the customary sign system of humankind .
⭕️ types of signs
1⃣ icon : an icon is a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning.
2⃣ index : an index is a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in nature with its meaning.
3⃣ symbol : a symbol is a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with its meaning.
❇️ evidence for the symbolic nature of linguistic signs :
1⃣ translation equivalents
2⃣ synonyms
3⃣ iconically expressible meanings
#linguistics
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points :
✔️ sign : an intersection or relationship of form and meaning .
⬇️
form = concrete
meaning = mental or cognitive
✔️ a sign is neither form nor meaning, but simultaneously both .
✔️ communication : use of signs
✔️ language : the customary sign system of humankind .
⭕️ types of signs
1⃣ icon : an icon is a sign whose form has actual characteristics of its meaning.
2⃣ index : an index is a sign whose form has characteristics which are only associated in nature with its meaning.
3⃣ symbol : a symbol is a sign whose form is arbitrarily or conventionally associated with its meaning.
❇️ evidence for the symbolic nature of linguistic signs :
1⃣ translation equivalents
2⃣ synonyms
3⃣ iconically expressible meanings
#linguistics
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💢 Six aspects of the general nature of language 💢
1⃣ arbitrariness
the forms of morphemes are only arbitrarily related to their meanings .
2⃣ displacement
displacement is the characteristic that in languages meanings are expressed which are " displaced " or removed from the concrete or physical presence of the object or stimulus, outside the individual, of those meanings.
⬇️
like " past " and " future "
⭕️ even taking about hypothetical things like " golden mountains "
3⃣ creativity
creativity is the characteristic of languages that they readily and regularly permit the expression of new meanings.
⬇️
in fact , the finite forms of language are able to express a non-finite ( unbounded ) number of meanings.
⭕️ the creativity of language is owed particularly to the two properties of openness and recursion.
4⃣ duality
duality is the characteristic of linguistic signs that these have a two-part or dual structure , in which the meaningful whole is made up of meaningless parts .
⬇️
morphemes, that is , are meaningful , but phones and features which make up the phones are meaningless .
5⃣ grammaticality
grammaticality is the characteristic of languages that they have rather strict rules about how things may be said .
⬇️
only certain sounds may be combined in words , and meanings have to be combined in certain ways , in words and sentences.
⭕️ utterances in the language which follow the rules are said to be grammatical and those which don't follow the rules are ungrammatical.
6⃣ cultural transmission
languages differ from place to place in the world , and we have to learn the form appropriate for the place . This learning is called cultural transmission.
⭕️ if languages were completely instinctive or innate ( genetically encoded in us ) , like knowing how to swallow, digest , or to recognize faces , languages wouldn't differ this way , and we wouldn't need to learn them .
#linguistics
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1⃣ arbitrariness
the forms of morphemes are only arbitrarily related to their meanings .
2⃣ displacement
displacement is the characteristic that in languages meanings are expressed which are " displaced " or removed from the concrete or physical presence of the object or stimulus, outside the individual, of those meanings.
⬇️
like " past " and " future "
⭕️ even taking about hypothetical things like " golden mountains "
3⃣ creativity
creativity is the characteristic of languages that they readily and regularly permit the expression of new meanings.
⬇️
in fact , the finite forms of language are able to express a non-finite ( unbounded ) number of meanings.
⭕️ the creativity of language is owed particularly to the two properties of openness and recursion.
4⃣ duality
duality is the characteristic of linguistic signs that these have a two-part or dual structure , in which the meaningful whole is made up of meaningless parts .
⬇️
morphemes, that is , are meaningful , but phones and features which make up the phones are meaningless .
5⃣ grammaticality
grammaticality is the characteristic of languages that they have rather strict rules about how things may be said .
⬇️
only certain sounds may be combined in words , and meanings have to be combined in certain ways , in words and sentences.
⭕️ utterances in the language which follow the rules are said to be grammatical and those which don't follow the rules are ungrammatical.
6⃣ cultural transmission
languages differ from place to place in the world , and we have to learn the form appropriate for the place . This learning is called cultural transmission.
⭕️ if languages were completely instinctive or innate ( genetically encoded in us ) , like knowing how to swallow, digest , or to recognize faces , languages wouldn't differ this way , and we wouldn't need to learn them .
#linguistics
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Deductive presentation
📎 Advantages
✔️ it is a quicker and easier way to teach the rule to learners.
✔️ it confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly adult learners or analytical learners who want to know ‘what they are studying’.
✔️ time-saving ( explaining rules is usually quicker than guessing from examples). The class time can be used for more practice.
📎 Disadvantages
✔️ grammar explanation tends to be teacher-fronted and does not actively involve learners.
✔️ grammat explanation might be cognitively demanding for young learners.
✔️ starting with grammar explanation might demotivate learners.
✔️ it leads to the belief that language involves just knowing the rules.
#teaching
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📎 Advantages
✔️ it is a quicker and easier way to teach the rule to learners.
✔️ it confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly adult learners or analytical learners who want to know ‘what they are studying’.
✔️ time-saving ( explaining rules is usually quicker than guessing from examples). The class time can be used for more practice.
📎 Disadvantages
✔️ grammar explanation tends to be teacher-fronted and does not actively involve learners.
✔️ grammat explanation might be cognitively demanding for young learners.
✔️ starting with grammar explanation might demotivate learners.
✔️ it leads to the belief that language involves just knowing the rules.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Inductive presentation
📎 Advantages
✔️ discovering rules by learners is likely to lead to more ‘meaningful, memorable, and serviceable’ knowledge.
✔️ it involves greater depth of processing which assists memory.
✔️it encourages the students' active involvement in grammar learning.
✔️ it is more challenging than simply receiving explanations.
✔️ it can be done collaboratively in the classroom.
✔️ figuring out the rule by themselves might encourage learner autonomy.
📎 Disadvantages
✔️ time-consuming _ it takes up time better spent on practice.
✔️ inferring rules might might result in the learners misunderstanding the rule.
✔️ it places high demands on teachers for class preparation.
#teaching
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@Elt_program
📎 Advantages
✔️ discovering rules by learners is likely to lead to more ‘meaningful, memorable, and serviceable’ knowledge.
✔️ it involves greater depth of processing which assists memory.
✔️it encourages the students' active involvement in grammar learning.
✔️ it is more challenging than simply receiving explanations.
✔️ it can be done collaboratively in the classroom.
✔️ figuring out the rule by themselves might encourage learner autonomy.
📎 Disadvantages
✔️ time-consuming _ it takes up time better spent on practice.
✔️ inferring rules might might result in the learners misunderstanding the rule.
✔️ it places high demands on teachers for class preparation.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program