📚 A practical test ...
✔️ stays within budgetary limits
✔️ can be completed by the test-taker within appropriate time constraints
✔️ has clear directions for administration
✔️ appropriately utilizes available human resources
✔️ does not exceed available material resources
✔️ considers the time and effort involved to both design and score
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ stays within budgetary limits
✔️ can be completed by the test-taker within appropriate time constraints
✔️ has clear directions for administration
✔️ appropriately utilizes available human resources
✔️ does not exceed available material resources
✔️ considers the time and effort involved to both design and score
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A reliable test ...
✔️ has consistent conditions across two or more administrations
✔️ gives clear directions for scoring/ evaluation
✔️ has uniform rubrics for scoring/evaluation
✔️ lends itself to consistent application of rubrics by the scorer
✔️ contains items/tasks that are unambiguous to the test-taker
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ has consistent conditions across two or more administrations
✔️ gives clear directions for scoring/ evaluation
✔️ has uniform rubrics for scoring/evaluation
✔️ lends itself to consistent application of rubrics by the scorer
✔️ contains items/tasks that are unambiguous to the test-taker
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A valid test ...
✔️ measures exactly what it proposes to measure
✔️ does not measure irrelevant or “contaminating” variables
✔️ relies as much as possible on empirical evidence (performance)
✔️ involves performance that samples the test’s criterion (objective)
✔️ offers useful, meaningful information about a test-taker’s ability
✔️ is supported by a theoretical rationale or argument
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ measures exactly what it proposes to measure
✔️ does not measure irrelevant or “contaminating” variables
✔️ relies as much as possible on empirical evidence (performance)
✔️ involves performance that samples the test’s criterion (objective)
✔️ offers useful, meaningful information about a test-taker’s ability
✔️ is supported by a theoretical rationale or argument
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 A test that provides beneficial washback ...
✔️ positively influences what and how teachers teach
✔️ positively influences what and how learners learn
✔️ offers learners a chance to adequately prepare
✔️ gives learners feedback that enhances their language development
✔️ is more formative in nature than summative
✔️ provides conditions for peak performance by the learner
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ positively influences what and how teachers teach
✔️ positively influences what and how learners learn
✔️ offers learners a chance to adequately prepare
✔️ gives learners feedback that enhances their language development
✔️ is more formative in nature than summative
✔️ provides conditions for peak performance by the learner
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Nominal Scale
🔘 The most basic scale of measurement is the nominal scale.
🔘 Nominal measurement involves placing objects or individuals into mutually exclusive categories.
🔘 Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to the categories for identification purposes only.
⬇️
The numbers do not indicate any value or amount; thus, one category does not represent “more or less” of a characteristic.
🔘 Examples of a nominal scale are using a “0” to represent males and a “1” to represent females, or vice versa.
🔘 Because the numbers in a nominal scale do not represent quantity, they cannot be arithmetically manipulated through addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 The most basic scale of measurement is the nominal scale.
🔘 Nominal measurement involves placing objects or individuals into mutually exclusive categories.
🔘 Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to the categories for identification purposes only.
⬇️
The numbers do not indicate any value or amount; thus, one category does not represent “more or less” of a characteristic.
🔘 Examples of a nominal scale are using a “0” to represent males and a “1” to represent females, or vice versa.
🔘 Because the numbers in a nominal scale do not represent quantity, they cannot be arithmetically manipulated through addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Ordinal Scale
🔘 An ordinal scale ranks objects or individuals according to how much of an attribute they possess.
⬇️
Thus, the numbers in an ordinal scale indicate only the order of the categories. Neither the difference between the numbers nor their ratio has meaning.
🔘 Example : A ranking of students in a music contest is an ordinal scale. We would know who was awarded first place, second place, and so on, but we would not know the extent of the difference between them.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 An ordinal scale ranks objects or individuals according to how much of an attribute they possess.
⬇️
Thus, the numbers in an ordinal scale indicate only the order of the categories. Neither the difference between the numbers nor their ratio has meaning.
🔘 Example : A ranking of students in a music contest is an ordinal scale. We would know who was awarded first place, second place, and so on, but we would not know the extent of the difference between them.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Interval Scale
🔘 An interval scale not only places objects or events in order, but also is marked in equal intervals.
⬇️
Equal differences between the units of measurement represent equal differences in the attribute being measured.
🔘 Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are examples of interval scales. We can say that the difference between 60° and 70° is the same as the distance between 30° and 40°, but we cannot say that 60° is twice as warm as 30° because there is no true zero on an interval scale.
⬇️
Zero on an interval scale is an arbitrary point and does not indicate an absence of the variable being measured.
⬇️
Zero on the Celsius scale is arbitrarily set at the temperature at which water freezes at sea level.
🔘 Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction, but because the zero is arbitrary, multiplication and division of the numbers are not feasible.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 An interval scale not only places objects or events in order, but also is marked in equal intervals.
⬇️
Equal differences between the units of measurement represent equal differences in the attribute being measured.
🔘 Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are examples of interval scales. We can say that the difference between 60° and 70° is the same as the distance between 30° and 40°, but we cannot say that 60° is twice as warm as 30° because there is no true zero on an interval scale.
⬇️
Zero on an interval scale is an arbitrary point and does not indicate an absence of the variable being measured.
⬇️
Zero on the Celsius scale is arbitrarily set at the temperature at which water freezes at sea level.
🔘 Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction, but because the zero is arbitrary, multiplication and division of the numbers are not feasible.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
☑️ Ratio Scale
🔘 A ratio scale, the highest level of measurement scale, has a true zero point as well as equal intervals.
🔘 Ratios can be reported between any two given values on the scale.
🔘 Example : A yardstick used to measure length in units of inches or feet is a ratio scale because the origin on the scale is an absolute zero corresponding to no length at all.
⬇️
It is possible to state that a stick 6 feet long is twice as long as a stick 3 feet long.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 A ratio scale, the highest level of measurement scale, has a true zero point as well as equal intervals.
🔘 Ratios can be reported between any two given values on the scale.
🔘 Example : A yardstick used to measure length in units of inches or feet is a ratio scale because the origin on the scale is an absolute zero corresponding to no length at all.
⬇️
It is possible to state that a stick 6 feet long is twice as long as a stick 3 feet long.
#testing
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚Types of Spoken Language
A. Monologues
1. Planned/rehearsed/spoken from a written text or notes
2. Spontaneous/impromptu/unplanned
B. Dialogues
1. Interpersonal/social/conversational
2. Transactional/informational/factual
🅰 In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language for any length of time, as in speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts, and the like, the hearer must process long stretches of speech without interruption—the stream of speech will go on whether or not the hearer comprehends.
1⃣ Planned monologues (such as speeches and other prewritten material) usually manifest little redundancy and are therefore relatively difficult to comprehend.
2⃣ Spontaneous monologues (impromptu lectures and long “stories” in conversations, for example) exhibit more redundancy, which makes for ease in comprehension, but the presence of more performance variables and other hesitations can either help or hinder comprehension.
🅱 Dialogues involve two or more speakers
1⃣ Interpersonal ➡️ those exchanges that promote social relationships
2⃣ Transactional ➡️ those for which the purpose is to convey propositional or factual information
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
A. Monologues
1. Planned/rehearsed/spoken from a written text or notes
2. Spontaneous/impromptu/unplanned
B. Dialogues
1. Interpersonal/social/conversational
2. Transactional/informational/factual
🅰 In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language for any length of time, as in speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts, and the like, the hearer must process long stretches of speech without interruption—the stream of speech will go on whether or not the hearer comprehends.
1⃣ Planned monologues (such as speeches and other prewritten material) usually manifest little redundancy and are therefore relatively difficult to comprehend.
2⃣ Spontaneous monologues (impromptu lectures and long “stories” in conversations, for example) exhibit more redundancy, which makes for ease in comprehension, but the presence of more performance variables and other hesitations can either help or hinder comprehension.
🅱 Dialogues involve two or more speakers
1⃣ Interpersonal ➡️ those exchanges that promote social relationships
2⃣ Transactional ➡️ those for which the purpose is to convey propositional or factual information
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚What makes listening difficult?
1⃣ Clustering
In spoken language, due to memory limitations and our predisposition for “chunking,” or clustering, we break down speech into smaller groups of words. Clauses are common constituents, but phrases within clauses are even more easily retained for comprehension.
2⃣ Redundancy
Redundancies help the hearer to process meaning by offering more time and extra information. Learners can train themselves to profit from such redundancy by first becoming aware that not very new sentence or phrase will necessarily contain new information and by looking for the signals of redundancy.
3⃣ Reduced Forms
Reductions pose significant difficulties, especially for classroom learners who may have initially been exposed to the full forms of the English language.
4⃣ Performance Variables
In spoken language, except for planned discourse (speeches, lectures, etc.), hesitations, false starts, pauses, and corrections are common. Learners have to train themselves to listen for meaning in the midst of distracting performance variables.
5⃣ Colloquial Language
Learners who have been exposed to standard written English and/or “text-book” language sometimes find it surprising and difficult to deal with colloquial language. Idioms, slang, reduced forms, and shared cultural knowledge are all manifested at some point in conversations.
6⃣ Rate of Delivery
As Jack Richards (1983) points out, the number and length of pauses used by a speaker is more crucial to comprehension than sheer speed
7⃣ Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
The prosodic features of the English language are very important for comprehension. Intonation patterns are very significant not just for interpreting straightforward elements such as questions, statements, and emphasis but for understanding more subtle messages like sarcasm, endearment, insult, solicitation, or praise.
8⃣ Interaction
Classroom techniques that include listening components must at some point include instruction in the two-way nature of listening. Students need to understand that good listeners (in conversation) are good responders. They know how to negotiate meaning (to give feedback, to ask for clarification, to maintain a topic) so that the process of comprehending can be complete rather than being aborted by insufficient interaction.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
1⃣ Clustering
In spoken language, due to memory limitations and our predisposition for “chunking,” or clustering, we break down speech into smaller groups of words. Clauses are common constituents, but phrases within clauses are even more easily retained for comprehension.
2⃣ Redundancy
Redundancies help the hearer to process meaning by offering more time and extra information. Learners can train themselves to profit from such redundancy by first becoming aware that not very new sentence or phrase will necessarily contain new information and by looking for the signals of redundancy.
3⃣ Reduced Forms
Reductions pose significant difficulties, especially for classroom learners who may have initially been exposed to the full forms of the English language.
4⃣ Performance Variables
In spoken language, except for planned discourse (speeches, lectures, etc.), hesitations, false starts, pauses, and corrections are common. Learners have to train themselves to listen for meaning in the midst of distracting performance variables.
5⃣ Colloquial Language
Learners who have been exposed to standard written English and/or “text-book” language sometimes find it surprising and difficult to deal with colloquial language. Idioms, slang, reduced forms, and shared cultural knowledge are all manifested at some point in conversations.
6⃣ Rate of Delivery
As Jack Richards (1983) points out, the number and length of pauses used by a speaker is more crucial to comprehension than sheer speed
7⃣ Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
The prosodic features of the English language are very important for comprehension. Intonation patterns are very significant not just for interpreting straightforward elements such as questions, statements, and emphasis but for understanding more subtle messages like sarcasm, endearment, insult, solicitation, or praise.
8⃣ Interaction
Classroom techniques that include listening components must at some point include instruction in the two-way nature of listening. Students need to understand that good listeners (in conversation) are good responders. They know how to negotiate meaning (to give feedback, to ask for clarification, to maintain a topic) so that the process of comprehending can be complete rather than being aborted by insufficient interaction.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚Types of classroom listening performance
1⃣ Reactive
✔️ Sometimes you want a learner simply to listen to the surface structure of an utterance for the sole purpose of repeating it back to you.
✔️ This role of the listener as merely a “tape recorder” is very limited because the listener is not generating meaning.
2⃣ Intensive
✔️ Techniques whose only purpose is to focus on components (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.) of discourse may be considered to be intensive.
3⃣ Responsive
✔️ A significant proportion of classroom listening activity consists of short stretches of teacher language designed to elicit immediate responses. The students’ task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to fashion an appropriate reply.
4⃣ Selective
✔️ In longer stretches of discourse such as monologues of a couple of minutes or considerably longer, the task of the student is not to process everything that was said, but rather to scan the material selectively for certain information.
5⃣ Extensive
✔️This sort of performance, unlike the intensive processing (item 2) described above, aims to develop a top-down, global understanding of spoken language.
6⃣ Interactive
✔️ Finally, there is listening performance that can include all five of the above types as learners actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, and other pair and group work. Their listening performance must be intricately integrated with speaking (and perhaps other) skills in the authentic give and take of communicative interchange.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
1⃣ Reactive
✔️ Sometimes you want a learner simply to listen to the surface structure of an utterance for the sole purpose of repeating it back to you.
✔️ This role of the listener as merely a “tape recorder” is very limited because the listener is not generating meaning.
2⃣ Intensive
✔️ Techniques whose only purpose is to focus on components (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.) of discourse may be considered to be intensive.
3⃣ Responsive
✔️ A significant proportion of classroom listening activity consists of short stretches of teacher language designed to elicit immediate responses. The students’ task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to fashion an appropriate reply.
4⃣ Selective
✔️ In longer stretches of discourse such as monologues of a couple of minutes or considerably longer, the task of the student is not to process everything that was said, but rather to scan the material selectively for certain information.
5⃣ Extensive
✔️This sort of performance, unlike the intensive processing (item 2) described above, aims to develop a top-down, global understanding of spoken language.
6⃣ Interactive
✔️ Finally, there is listening performance that can include all five of the above types as learners actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, and other pair and group work. Their listening performance must be intricately integrated with speaking (and perhaps other) skills in the authentic give and take of communicative interchange.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Speech-processing theory distinguishes between two types of processing in both listening and reading comprehension :
🔘 Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings, and so on, to a final “message.”
🔘 Top-down processing is evoked from “a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations” and other background information (schemata) that the listener brings to the text.
⬇️
💢 Bottom-up techniques typically focus on the “bits and pieces” of language, breaking language into component parts and giving them central focus.
💢 Top-down techniques are more concerned with the activation of schemata, with deriving meaning, with global understanding, and with the interpretation of a text.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🔘 Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings, and so on, to a final “message.”
🔘 Top-down processing is evoked from “a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations” and other background information (schemata) that the listener brings to the text.
⬇️
💢 Bottom-up techniques typically focus on the “bits and pieces” of language, breaking language into component parts and giving them central focus.
💢 Top-down techniques are more concerned with the activation of schemata, with deriving meaning, with global understanding, and with the interpretation of a text.
#teaching
#skills
#teaching_listening
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Sources of Knowledge
1⃣ Deductive Reasoning
✔️ Aristotle introduced the use of deductive reasoning, which is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific knowledge through logical argument.
✔️ A major type of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion.
Example:
“All men are mortal” (major premise)
“The king is a man” (minor premise)
“Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion).
✔️In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
2⃣ Inductive Reasoning
✔️ Bacon believed that investigators should not accept premises handed down by the Church Fathers as absolute truth. Rather, investigators should establish conclusions based on facts gathered through direct observation.
⬇️
In Bacon’s system, an investigator made observations on particular events in a class or category, and then made inferences about the whole class or category on the basis of the observations.
✔️ In the 19th century, scholars began to integrate the most important aspects of the inductive and deductive methods into a new technique, namely the inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
1⃣ Deductive Reasoning
✔️ Aristotle introduced the use of deductive reasoning, which is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific knowledge through logical argument.
✔️ A major type of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion.
Example:
“All men are mortal” (major premise)
“The king is a man” (minor premise)
“Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion).
✔️In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
2⃣ Inductive Reasoning
✔️ Bacon believed that investigators should not accept premises handed down by the Church Fathers as absolute truth. Rather, investigators should establish conclusions based on facts gathered through direct observation.
⬇️
In Bacon’s system, an investigator made observations on particular events in a class or category, and then made inferences about the whole class or category on the basis of the observations.
✔️ In the 19th century, scholars began to integrate the most important aspects of the inductive and deductive methods into a new technique, namely the inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📌 Competence
✔️one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact.
✔️ Competence is the nonobservable ability to do something, to perform something.
✔️ In reference to language, competence is one’s underlying knowledge of the system of a language —its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together.
✔️ competence is not a list or set of rules and grammatical forms, but instead a complex interaction of abstract constraints and principles of language that interact to make sentences look the way they look to us.
📌 Performance
✔️ overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence.
✔️ It is the actual doing of something: walking, singing, dancing, speaking. In reference to language, performance refers to the individual’s actual language use.
⬇️
It is actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events
✔️ a mature speaker of a language (e.g., English) might make an error and produce an utterance such as ‘I will be home yesterday’.
⬇️
performance errors like these are fairly common in adult speech and can result from such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors, and hesitation phenomena, such as repeats, false starts, pauses, omissions, and additions.
✔️Chomsky likened competence to an ‘idealized’ speaker-hearer who does not display such performance variables.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact.
✔️ Competence is the nonobservable ability to do something, to perform something.
✔️ In reference to language, competence is one’s underlying knowledge of the system of a language —its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together.
✔️ competence is not a list or set of rules and grammatical forms, but instead a complex interaction of abstract constraints and principles of language that interact to make sentences look the way they look to us.
📌 Performance
✔️ overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence.
✔️ It is the actual doing of something: walking, singing, dancing, speaking. In reference to language, performance refers to the individual’s actual language use.
⬇️
It is actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events
✔️ a mature speaker of a language (e.g., English) might make an error and produce an utterance such as ‘I will be home yesterday’.
⬇️
performance errors like these are fairly common in adult speech and can result from such performance variables as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors, and hesitation phenomena, such as repeats, false starts, pauses, omissions, and additions.
✔️Chomsky likened competence to an ‘idealized’ speaker-hearer who does not display such performance variables.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
📚 Types of research
1⃣ Secondary research
✔️ a type of research which is based on sources or data that are one step removed from the original information.
⬇️
they refer to the sources and data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
2⃣ Primary research
✔️ It is a type of research in which researchers gather original data (primary data) to answer a particular research question. When researchers gather first-hand data, the outcome is knowledge nobody had before.
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
1⃣ Secondary research
✔️ a type of research which is based on sources or data that are one step removed from the original information.
⬇️
they refer to the sources and data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
2⃣ Primary research
✔️ It is a type of research in which researchers gather original data (primary data) to answer a particular research question. When researchers gather first-hand data, the outcome is knowledge nobody had before.
#research
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program