🌿 constructivism
✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
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✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
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🌿 formative assessment
✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
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✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
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🌿 washback/ backwash
✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
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✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
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🌿 test bias
✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
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✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
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🌿 authenticity
✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
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✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
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@Elt_program
🌿 achievement tests
✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
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✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
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🌿 knowledge tests
✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
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✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
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@Elt_program
🌿 proficiency tests
✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
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✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
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🌿 placement tests
✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
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✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 selection tests
✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
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✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
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🌿 aptitude tests
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 speed tests
✔️ items are comparatively easy
✔️ items are within the ability level of the test takers
✔️ time limit ( few or none of the test takers can complete all items )
✔️ each test taker's score reflects only the speed with which he or she has worked
🌿 power tests
✔️ item difficulty generally increases ( more items too difficult for anyone to solve so that no one can get a perfect score )
✔️it has a time limit long enough to permit everyone to attempt all items
✔️the aim is to determine how much an individual is able to do
#testing
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✔️ items are comparatively easy
✔️ items are within the ability level of the test takers
✔️ time limit ( few or none of the test takers can complete all items )
✔️ each test taker's score reflects only the speed with which he or she has worked
🌿 power tests
✔️ item difficulty generally increases ( more items too difficult for anyone to solve so that no one can get a perfect score )
✔️it has a time limit long enough to permit everyone to attempt all items
✔️the aim is to determine how much an individual is able to do
#testing
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🌿 direct test
✔️ testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill we wish to measure.
✔️ advantages:
🔘 in the case of the productive skills ➡️ the assessment and interpretation of students' performance is quite straightforward.
🔘 since practice for test involves practice of the skills that we wish to foster ➡️ there is likely to be a positive backwash effect
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 as the receptive skills are essentially unobservable , there is disagreement as to whether it is possible to have direct tests of reading or listening.
🌿 indirect test
✔️ a test which attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested.
⬇️
inference is made from performance
✔️ advantage:
🔘 it seems to offer the possibility of testing a representative sample of a finite number of abilities which underlie a potentially indefinitely large number of manifestations of them.
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 the relationship between performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more interested tends to be rather weak in strength and nature .
#testing
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✔️ testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill we wish to measure.
✔️ advantages:
🔘 in the case of the productive skills ➡️ the assessment and interpretation of students' performance is quite straightforward.
🔘 since practice for test involves practice of the skills that we wish to foster ➡️ there is likely to be a positive backwash effect
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 as the receptive skills are essentially unobservable , there is disagreement as to whether it is possible to have direct tests of reading or listening.
🌿 indirect test
✔️ a test which attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested.
⬇️
inference is made from performance
✔️ advantage:
🔘 it seems to offer the possibility of testing a representative sample of a finite number of abilities which underlie a potentially indefinitely large number of manifestations of them.
✔️ disadvantage:
🔘 the relationship between performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more interested tends to be rather weak in strength and nature .
#testing
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Frank_Parker_&_Kathryn_Riley_2010.pdf
182.2 MB
Linguistics For Non-Linguists: A Primer With Exercise
By Frank Parker, Kathryn Riley
#linguistics
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By Frank Parker, Kathryn Riley
#linguistics
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🌿 rank order
✔️ arranging the scores in the order of size , usually from highest to lowest .
✔️ if two testees received the same score , we should divide the sum of their rank by two. In the case of three similar scores , we divide the sum of their rank by three and so forth.
score rank order
------------------------------------------------------
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
97 5
96 6
95 7.5
95 7.5
93 9
92 11
92 11
92 11
#testing
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✔️ arranging the scores in the order of size , usually from highest to lowest .
✔️ if two testees received the same score , we should divide the sum of their rank by two. In the case of three similar scores , we divide the sum of their rank by three and so forth.
score rank order
------------------------------------------------------
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
100 2.5
97 5
96 6
95 7.5
95 7.5
93 9
92 11
92 11
92 11
#testing
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🌿 simple or absolute frequency
✔️ frequency is the number of times a score occurs.
✔️ it is shown by small letter f.
🌿 relative frequency
✔️ relative frequency refers to the simple frequency of each score divided by the total number of scores .
relative frequency = f / N
🌿 percentage
✔️ when relative frequency index is multiplied by 100 , the result is called percentage.
percentage = relative frequency × 100
🌿 cumulative frequency
✔️ cumulative frequency indicates the standing of any particular score in a group of scores.
✔️ it shows how many scores fall below the given score in a distribution.
✔️ in other words , this index shows how many students received a particular score and less than that.
✔️ this frequency is calculated by adding the frequency of successive intervals in the previous work.
✔️ it is shown by F.
🌿 percentile
✔️ when cumulative frequency index is divided by the total number of learners multiplied by 100 , the result is percentile.
percentile rank = F / N × 100
✔️ percentile rank shows what percentage or students received a particular score or below that.
#testing
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✔️ frequency is the number of times a score occurs.
✔️ it is shown by small letter f.
🌿 relative frequency
✔️ relative frequency refers to the simple frequency of each score divided by the total number of scores .
relative frequency = f / N
🌿 percentage
✔️ when relative frequency index is multiplied by 100 , the result is called percentage.
percentage = relative frequency × 100
🌿 cumulative frequency
✔️ cumulative frequency indicates the standing of any particular score in a group of scores.
✔️ it shows how many scores fall below the given score in a distribution.
✔️ in other words , this index shows how many students received a particular score and less than that.
✔️ this frequency is calculated by adding the frequency of successive intervals in the previous work.
✔️ it is shown by F.
🌿 percentile
✔️ when cumulative frequency index is divided by the total number of learners multiplied by 100 , the result is percentile.
percentile rank = F / N × 100
✔️ percentile rank shows what percentage or students received a particular score or below that.
#testing
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Second_language_research_methodology_and_design_by_Alison_Mackey.pdf
19.3 MB
Mackey&Gass
Second language research: methodology and design(2005).pdf
#research
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Second language research: methodology and design(2005).pdf
#research
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