🌿 measurement
✔️ a process of quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules
⬇️
🔘 quantification involves the assigning of numbers, and this distinguishes measures from qualitative descriptions such as verbal accounts or non-verbal , visual representations .
🔘 characteristics are mental attributes and abilities, sometimes called traits or constructs ➡️ they can only be observed indirectly
🔘 rules and procedures which means that the "blind" or haphazard assignment of numbers to characteristics of individuals cannot be regarded as measurement ➡️ in order to be considered a measure, an observation of an attribute must be replicable, for other observers , in other contexts and with other individuals
#testing
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✔️ a process of quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules
⬇️
🔘 quantification involves the assigning of numbers, and this distinguishes measures from qualitative descriptions such as verbal accounts or non-verbal , visual representations .
🔘 characteristics are mental attributes and abilities, sometimes called traits or constructs ➡️ they can only be observed indirectly
🔘 rules and procedures which means that the "blind" or haphazard assignment of numbers to characteristics of individuals cannot be regarded as measurement ➡️ in order to be considered a measure, an observation of an attribute must be replicable, for other observers , in other contexts and with other individuals
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 test
✔️ test is a measurement instrument
✔️ test often connotes the presentation of a set of questions to be answered, to obtain a measure ( that is , a numerical value ) of a characteristic ( that is , mental attribute and ability) of a person in a given domain ( language, math , etc )
✔️ what distinguishes a test from other types of measurement is that it is designed to obtain a specific sample of behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual.
✔️ tests are prepared administrative procedures that occur at identifiable times in a curriculum.
✔️ a test measures performance , but the results imply the test-taker's ability, or to use a term common in the field of linguistics , competence.
#testing
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@Elt_program
✔️ test is a measurement instrument
✔️ test often connotes the presentation of a set of questions to be answered, to obtain a measure ( that is , a numerical value ) of a characteristic ( that is , mental attribute and ability) of a person in a given domain ( language, math , etc )
✔️ what distinguishes a test from other types of measurement is that it is designed to obtain a specific sample of behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual.
✔️ tests are prepared administrative procedures that occur at identifiable times in a curriculum.
✔️ a test measures performance , but the results imply the test-taker's ability, or to use a term common in the field of linguistics , competence.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 evaluation
Three definitions :
1⃣ The process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives
2⃣ The determination of the congruence between performance and objectives
3⃣ A process that allows one to make a judgment about the desirability or value of a measure
✔️ The information relevant to evaluation can be either qualitative ( non-measurement ) or quantitative ( measurement) .
#testing
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@Elt_program
Three definitions :
1⃣ The process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives
2⃣ The determination of the congruence between performance and objectives
3⃣ A process that allows one to make a judgment about the desirability or value of a measure
✔️ The information relevant to evaluation can be either qualitative ( non-measurement ) or quantitative ( measurement) .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 structural linguistics
✔️ advocates :
Leonard Bloomfield
Edward Sapir
Charles Hockett
Charles Fries
✔️only "publicly observable responses"
✔️ the linguist's task ➡️ to describe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages.
✔️ languages can differ from each other without limit, and that no preconceptions could apply across languages.
✔️ language could be dismantled into small pieces or units and that these units could be described scientifically, contrasted, and added up again to form the whole.
#teaching
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@Elt_program
✔️ advocates :
Leonard Bloomfield
Edward Sapir
Charles Hockett
Charles Fries
✔️only "publicly observable responses"
✔️ the linguist's task ➡️ to describe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages.
✔️ languages can differ from each other without limit, and that no preconceptions could apply across languages.
✔️ language could be dismantled into small pieces or units and that these units could be described scientifically, contrasted, and added up again to form the whole.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 behavioral psychology
✔️ a behavioral paradigm also focused on publicly observable responses
⬇️
those that can be objectively perceived, recorded, and measured.
✔️ concepts as consciousness and intuition were regarded as mentaltstic, illegitimate domains of inquiry.
✔️ typical behavioral models were classical and operant conditioning, rote verbal learning, instrumental learning, discrimination learning, and other empirical approaches to studying human behavior.
⬇️
experiments with Pavlov's dog and Skinner's boxes
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ a behavioral paradigm also focused on publicly observable responses
⬇️
those that can be objectively perceived, recorded, and measured.
✔️ concepts as consciousness and intuition were regarded as mentaltstic, illegitimate domains of inquiry.
✔️ typical behavioral models were classical and operant conditioning, rote verbal learning, instrumental learning, discrimination learning, and other empirical approaches to studying human behavior.
⬇️
experiments with Pavlov's dog and Skinner's boxes
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 generative linguistics
✔️generative-transformational linguistics emerged through the influence of Noam Chomsky and a number of his followers.
✔️ Chomsky was trying to show that human language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and responses or the volumes of raw data gathered by field linguists.
✔️ the generative linguist was interested not only in describing language (achieving the level of descriptive adequacy) but also in arriving at an explanatory level of adequacy in the study of language.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️generative-transformational linguistics emerged through the influence of Noam Chomsky and a number of his followers.
✔️ Chomsky was trying to show that human language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and responses or the volumes of raw data gathered by field linguists.
✔️ the generative linguist was interested not only in describing language (achieving the level of descriptive adequacy) but also in arriving at an explanatory level of adequacy in the study of language.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 cognitive psychology
✔️ cognitive psychologists asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were significant data for psychological study.
✔️ cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, sought to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures of human behavior by using a rational approach.
⬇️
that is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study typical of behaviorists and employed the tools of logic, reason, extrapolation, and inference in order to derive explanations for human behavior.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ cognitive psychologists asserted that meaning, understanding, and knowing were significant data for psychological study.
✔️ cognitive psychologists, like generative linguists, sought to discover underlying motivations and deeper structures of human behavior by using a rational approach.
⬇️
that is, they freed themselves from the strictly empirical study typical of behaviorists and employed the tools of logic, reason, extrapolation, and inference in order to derive explanations for human behavior.
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 constructivism
✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are often associated with constructivism
✔️ refreshing characteristic of constructivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms
✔️ its emphasis is on:
social interaction
the discovery
construction of meaning
✔️ two branches of constructivism: cognitive and social
✔️ in the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed on the importance of learners constructing their own representation of reality ➡️ Piaget
✔️ social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cooperative learning in ultimate attainment ➡️ Vygotsky
✔️ Vygotsky ➡️ zone of proximal development (ZPD)
1⃣ the distance between learners'existing developmental state and their potential development
2⃣ ZPD describes tasks that a learner has not yet learned but is capable of learning with appropriate stimuli
#teaching
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 formative assessment
✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ most of our classroom assessment is formative assessment
✔️ formative assessment ➡️ evaluating students in the process of " forming" their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process
✔️ virtually all kinds of informal assessment are ( or should be) formative
✔️ ongoing development of the learner’s language
🌿 summative assessment
✔️ aims to measure , or summarize, what a student has grasped
✔️ typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of instruction
✔️a summation of what a student has learned implies looking back and taking stock of how well that student has accomplished objectives
✔️ final exams in a course and general proficiency exams are examples of summative assessment
✔️ summative assessment often , but not always , involves evaluation ( decision making )
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 washback/ backwash
✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ the effect of the nature of a test on teaching and learing
✔️ if a test is regarded as important, then preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities
✔️ if test and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course , then there is likely to be harmful backwash or negative backwash
✔️ backwash need not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial which is called beneficial backwash or positive backwash
⬇️
positive washback is said to result when a testing procedure encourages " good " teaching practice
✔️ if the knowledge from teaching has an influence on testing , this would be an example of reverse washback.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 test bias
✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️when a test happens to be in favour of some test takers due to their individual or group characteristics, we say that the test is biased
✔️ bias is defined as prejudice or having a particular bent or direction
⬇️
to say a test is biased is to charge that it is prejudiced or unfair to groups or individuals characterized as different from the majority of test takers
✔️ characteristics which are likely to affect test performance and hece result in test bias :
🔘 cultural background
🔘 background knowledge
🔘 cognitive characteristics
🔘 native language
🔘 ethnicity
🔘 sex
🔘 age
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 authenticity
✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ Bachman and Palmer defined authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task"
✔️ essentially, when you make a claim for authenticity in a test task, you are saying that this task is likely to be enacted in the real world.
✔️ an authentic test ...
🔘 contains language that is as natural as possible
🔘 has items that are contextualized rather than isolated
🔘 includes meaningful, relevant, interesting topics
🔘 provides some thematic organization to items, such as through a story line or episode
🔘 offers tasks that replicate real-world tasks
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 achievement tests
✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️also syllabus-based test
✔️ tests used for achievement purposes are designed to measure the degree of students' learning from a particular set of instructional materials.
✔️ achievement tests are directly related to language courses.
✔️ most of these tests deal with a body of knowledge that the examinee is supposed to achieve through a course or courses of study ➡️ such tests are called general achievement tests .
✔️ the tests which are aimed at measuring, specially and purposefully , the detailed elements of an instructional topic , are called diagnostic achievement tests .
⬇️
diagnostic achievement tests are used to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the examinees in a particular course of study.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 knowledge tests
✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ knowledge tests are used in situations where the medium of instruction is a language other than the learners' mother tongue ➡️ in these cases , the second language is used as the language of the tests to measure the examinees knowledge in areas other than language itself
✔️ examples :
a physics test written in English
Or
a psychology test written in English
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 proficiency tests
✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ a test which measures how much of a language someone has learnt .
⬇️
overall language ability _ global competence
✔️ a proficiency test is not limited to any one course curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather it tests the result of the individual’s cumulative learning experiences.
✔️ proficiency tests are almost always summative and norm-referenced .
✔️ they provide results in the form of a single score ( and usually two or three subscores, one for each section of a test )
✔️ examples : TOEFL _ FCE _ CPE _ IELTS
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 placement tests
✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ placement tests are used to determine the most appropriate channel of education for examinees.
⬇️
Sorting students into relatively homogeneous language ability groupings so that they can start a course at approximately the same level as the other students in the class.
✔️ materials should be appropriately challenging; neither too easy nor too difficult.
✔️ they are tailor-made rather than bought off the peg.
✔️ there is no pass or fail in placement tests .
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 selection tests
✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ the purpose of selection tests is to provide information upon which the examinees' acceptance or non-acceptance into a particular program can be determined.
✔️ administrative restrictions
⬇️
selection tests ➡️ competition tests
✔️ those who take a selection test either pass or fail.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
🌿 aptitude tests
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program
✔️ aptitude tests are used to predict applicants' success in achieving certain objectives in the future.
✔️ aptitude tests can contribute to making decisions on :
🔘 the appropriate major fields of study
🔘 learning suitable foreign languages
🔘 future occupations of the students
✔️ two standardized aptitude tests used in United States:
1) MLAT
2) PLAB
✔️ these tests do not tell us who will succeed or fail in learning a foreign language .
⬇️
they attempt to predict the rate at which certain students will be able to acquire a language.
#testing
@Eltprogram
@Elt_program