🌿 classical conditioning


✔️ a learning theory within the context of behaviorist psychology


✔️ Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response.


✔️ It was first demonstrated by the Russian psychologist Pavlov, who at the turn of the twentieth century conducted a series of experiments in which he trained a dog to salivate to the tone of a bell through a procedure that has come to be labeled classical conditioning

✔️ Drawing on Pavlov’s findings, Watson coined the term behaviorism. Watson contended that human behavior should be studied objectively, rejecting mentalistic notions of innateness and instinct. He adopted the classical conditioning theory as the explanation for all learning: by the process of conditioning, we build an array of stimulus-response connections, and more complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of responses.


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🌿 operant conditioning


✔️ also called instrumental conditioning

✔️ a learning theory proposed by Skinner within the context of behaviorist psychology

✔️ Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism (in this case, a human being) emits a response, or operant (a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained (learned) by reinforcement (e.g., a positive verbal or nonverbal response from another person, getting what they want, receiving praise, getting people to interact with them)

✔️ If a child says ‘want milk’ and a parent gives the child some milk, the operant is reinforced and, over repeated instances, is conditioned.

✔️ According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior, is controlled by its consequences—the events or stimuli (i.e., the reinforcers) that follow a response and that tend to strengthen behavior or increase the probability of a recurrence of that response.

⬇️

🔹 When consequences are rewarding, behavior is maintained and is increased in strength and perhaps frequency.


🔹 When consequences are punishing, or when there is a total lack of reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished.


✔️ According to Skinner, reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere association of a prior stimulus with a following response, as in the classical conditioning model.


✔️ Skinner is called a neobehaviorist because he added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology.

✔️ The classical conditioning of Pavlov was, according to Skinner, a highly specialized form of learning utilized mainly by animals and playing little part in human conditioning.

✔️ Skinner called Pavlovian conditioning respondent conditioning since it was concerned with respondent behavior—that is, behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus.


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🌿 prescriptive grammar

✔️ a grammar which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage.

✔️ many traditional grammars are of this kind.




🌿 descriptive grammar

✔️ a grammar which describes how a language is actually spoken and /or written, and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written.



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🌿 meaningful learning


✔️ also called subsumption


✔️ the process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure

✔️ David Ausubel contended that learning takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions—hanging new items on existing cognitive pegs.


✔️ Meaning is not an implicit response, but a clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individuals cognitive structure on a nonarbitrary and substantive basis.

✔️ It is this relatability that ,according to Ausubel, accounts for a number of phenomena: the acquisition of new meanings (knowledge), retention , the psychological organization of knowledge as a hierarchical structure, and the eventual occurrence of forgetting.


✔️ The cognitive theory of learning as put forth by Ausubel is perhaps best understood by contrasting rote learning and meaningful learning.

⬇️

Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material as discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of meaningful relationships. That is, rote learning involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure.

⬇️

Most of us, for example, can learn a few necessary phone numbers and ZIP codes by rote without reference to cognitive hierarchical organization.


✔️ in meaningful learning, as new material enters the cognitive field, it interacts with, and is appropriately subsumed under, a more inclusive conceptual system ➡️ The very fact that material is subsumable, that is, relatable to stable elements in cognitive structure, accounts for its meaningfulness.


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