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*🛡️LEADER OF THE HOUSE OF THE OPPOSITION*

♟️In each House of Parliament, there is the ‘Leader of the Opposition’. The leader of the largest Opposition party having not less than one-tenth seats of the total strength of the House is recognised as the leader of the Opposition in that House.

♟️In a parliamentary system of government, the leader of the opposition has a significant role to play. His main functions are to provide a constructive criticism of the policies of the government and to provide an alternative government. Therefore, the leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha were accorded statutory recognition in 1977.

♟️They are also entitled to the salary, allowances and other facilities equivalent to that of a cabinet minister.

♟️It was in 1969 that an official leader of the opposition was recognised for the first time. The same functionary in USA is known as the ‘minority leader’.

*🛡️Tidal Flooding*

♟️Tidal flooding, also known as “nuisance flooding” or “sunny day flooding,” happens when high tides cause water levels to rise and flood low-lying coastal areas. 
*♟️Causes* Changes in prevailing winds, shifts in ocean currents, and strong tidal forces (which occur during full or new moon) can all cause high tide flooding.
♟️High tide flooding falls into three levels of severity: minor, moderate, and major. 

*💎Concerns*
♟️Tidal flooding disrupts daily life by flooding roads and services, damages infrastructure, and causes economic losses for businesses. 
♟️It accelerates coastal erosion, harms habitats, and contaminates freshwater supplies with saltwater. 
♟️Repeated flooding forces communities to relocate. 
♟️Over time, rising sea levels due to climate change will make tidal flooding more frequent and severe.

🛡️ *Evolution of Civil services in India*

♟️1. Cornwallis ( 1786-93) first to organise .

♟️ 2. Wellesley ( 1798-1805)
A. Fort William college for new recruits
B. 1806- Disapproved ( by Court of Directors)
C. East India College at Haileybury in England

♟️3. 1853- Open competition

♟️4. Indian Civil Service Act, 1861:
A. Age: 23 (1859), 22 ( 1860), 21 ( 1866), 19 ( 1878)
B. 1863- Satyendra Nath Tagore became first Indian to qualify

♟️5. Statutory civil service (1878-79: Lytton)
A. 1/6th covenanted post to Indians through nominations ( system failed and abolished)

♟️6. Aitchison Committee on Public Services ( 1886) - Dufferin
A. Drop covenanted and uncovenanted
B. Imperial Indian Civil service ( Exam- England), Provincial Civil Service ( exam- India),
Subordinate Civil Service ( Exam- India)
C. Raising Age limit to 23

♟️7. Montford Reforms 1919:
A. 1/3rd recruitment in India itself- to be raised annually by 1.5%

♟️8. Lee Commission 1924:
A. Direct recruit. To ICS on basis of 50:50 parity to be reached in 15 yrs
B. Public Service Commission to be established ( as laid in GoI Act,1919)

♟️9. GoI Act, 1935:
A. Establishment of Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission.

*🛡️Public Accounts Committee(PAC)*

♟️It is a financial parliamentary committee.
♟️It was set up first in 1921 under Government of India act 1919.
♟️It consists of 22 members (15-Lok Sabha , 7- Rajya Sabha). A minister cannot be its member.
♟️The term of office of the members is one year. The members are elected by the Parliament every  year from amongst its members.
♟️Its chairman is appointed by Speaker of LS.
*💎FUNCTION :*
♟️To examine the annual audit reports of the CAG. CAG acts as a guide, friend, philosopher of the committee.

*💎Limitations :*
♟️It is not concerned with the questions of policy in broader sense.
♟️Its recommendations are advisory and not binding on the ministries.
♟️It conducts a post-mortem examination of accounts.

🛡️ *Government Securities (G-Sec)*

♟️A Tradable instrument issued by the Central Government or the State Governments.
♟️A G-Sec is a type of debt instrument issued by the government to borrow money from the public to finance its Fiscal Deficit.
*💎Kinds*
♟️ *Short* Term (usually called treasury bills, with original maturities of less than one year
♟️ *Long* Term (usually called Government bonds or dated securities with original maturity of one year or more)
💎 *Issuer*
♟️Central Government - issues both, treasury bills & bonds or dated securities
♟️State Government - Only bonds or dated securities [State Development Loans (SDLs)]
♟️G-Secs carry practically no risk of default and, hence, are called risk-free gilt-edged instruments.
♟️ *Issue Mechanism* The RBI conducts Open Market Operations (OMOs) for sale or purchase of G-secs to adjust money supply conditions.

🏵Noise Pollution

🛡Section 2 (a) of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 considers noise as an ‘air pollutant’.

🛡Noise pollution and its sources are regulated under The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 under The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

🛡Under the Act, there is a defined ambient acceptable noise level, restrictions on the use of loudspeakers, sound-emitting construction equipment, horns, bursting of crackers, and so on

*🛡️Countries Along the Tropics & Equator with Mnemonics*

*💎Tropic of Cancer (16 Countries)*

*💎Mnemonic:- ESTONIA WC plays BBL in MMMMU*

♟️Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Oman, Niger, India, Algeria, Western Sahara, China, Bangladesh, Bahamas, Libya, Mali, Myanmar, Mexico, Mauritania, UAE.

*💎Tropic of Capricorn (10 Countries)*

*💎Mnemonic:- CAB PNB Se Mumbai Aai*

♟️Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Australia.

*💎Equator (13 Countries)*

*💎Mnemonic:- ECB SaoTomo GCC UKS MIKi*

♟️Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Republic of Congo, DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati.

> *_Hit 👍🏻❤️ To Appreciate Our Consistent Efforts_*

*🛡️Question Hour*

♟️The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this.

♟️During this time, the members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions are of three kinds, namely, starred, unstarred and short notice.

♟️A starred question (distinguished by an asterisk) requires an oral answer and hence supplementary questions can follow.

♟️An unstarred question, on the other hand, requires a written answer and hence, supplementary questions cannot follow.

♟️A short notice question is one that is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is answered orally.

*🛡️Important case laws related to Constitution of India:*

*1 S.R.Bommai v.UOI:* (1994)
Federalism I Secularism Artilcle 356 and floor test.
S. R. Bommai case was a landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of India, where the Court discussed provisions of Article 356 of the Constitution of India and related issues. This case had a huge impact on Centre-State Relations. The judgement attempted to curb misuse of Article 356 of the Constitution of India, which allowed President's rule to be imposed on state governments.

*2 Samsher Singh v. State of punjab: (1974)*
Function of President/Governor with aid and advice of
Council of Ministers

*3 Maneka Gandhi v. UOI: (1978)*
Article 21 Right to travel abroad
(Article 14, 19 and 21)

*4 Indra Sawhney v. UOI: (1992)*
SCC - Mandal Commission

*5 C. Golaknath case (1967):*
Validity of the First and Seventeenth Amendments and described the scope of Article 13

*6 Kesvananda Bharti case (1973):*
Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution

*7 Menaka Gandhi case (1978):*
Significant towards the transformation of the judicial review

*8 Waman Rao Case (1981):*
Validity of 9th Schedule.

🛡️ *Significance Of Fundamental Duties*

♟️They serve as a reminder to the citizens that while enjoying their rights, they should also be conscious of duties they owe to their country, their society and to their fellow citizens.

♟️They serve as a warning against the anti-national and anti-social activities like burning the national flag, destroying public property and so on.

♟️They serve as a source of inspiration for the citizens and promote a sense of discipline and commitment among them.

♟️They help the courts in examining and determining the constitutional validity of a law.

♟️They are enforceable by law. Hence, the Parliament can provide for the imposition of appropriate penalty or punishment for failure to fulfil any of them.

*🛡️Space Debris*

♟️Space Debris (also called space junk or orbital debris) refers to all man-made objects in space that are no longer useful but still orbit the Earth.

*💎Main Sources*

*♟️1. Defunct satellites –* Old satellites that no longer work.

*♟️2. Rocket parts –* Stages or fragments left behind after launches.

*♟️3. Collision fragments –* Pieces created when satellites or rockets collide.

*♟️4. Mission-related objects –* Bolts, metal pieces, or tools left during missions.

*💎Dangers*

*♟️Damage to active satellites –* Debris can crash into working satellites.

*♟️Risk to astronauts –* Even tiny fragments can harm the International Space Station (ISS).

*♟️Kessler Syndrome –* A chain reaction where collisions create more debris, making space too dangerous.

*💎Solutions*

*♟️Graveyard orbit or re-entry –* Moving old satellites into a safer orbit or burning them up in Earth’s atmosphere.

*♟️Active Debris Removal (ADR) –* Using nets, robotic arms, or lasers to clear junk.

*♟️New space rules –* Agencies now design missions to reduce future debris.

*♟️In Short,* space debris = old satellites + rocket parts + fragments that make space operations risky.

*🛡️Hydrogels*

♟️Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of water-soluble polymers that can absorb and retain a large amount of water without losing their structural integrity.
♟️They are super-soft and transparent materials that can shrink or swell when exposed to water.
♟️Hydrogels are made by crosslinking polymer chains through chemical reactions.

♟️Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA):
This was the first hydrogel material used in contact lenses, offering flexibility and comfort.

♟️Silicone Hydrogel Lenses:
These are a variation of hydrogel lenses that improve oxygen permeability, allowing for extended wear and increased comfort.

♟️Modified Hydrogels:
These are hydrogels that have been modified to enhance their properties, such as increasing water content and oxygen permeability.

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