*🪄Polar Vortex – Winter Storms in USA*

*💎 What is Polar Vortex?*
♟️ Large, persistent low-pressure cold air mass over Polar Regions
♟️ Contained by Polar-front Jet Stream (separates cold polar & warm tropical air)

*💎 Rotation*
♟️ Counter-clockwise → North Pole
♟️ Clockwise → South Pole

*💎 Formation Factors*
♟️ Strong temperature gradient (pole vs tropics)
♟️ Coriolis force (Earth’s rotation)
♟️ Pressure gradient force
♟️ Jet stream interaction

*💎 Stability Mechanism*
♟️ Strong vortex → Jet stream tight & circular → Cold air locked near poles
♟️ Weak vortex → Jet stream wavy → Cold air spills south (USA winter storms)

*💎 Types*
♟️ Tropospheric PV: 10–15 km (direct weather effects)
♟️ Stratospheric PV: 15–50 km (strongest in winter)

*💎 Impacts*
⚠️ Extreme cold waves in mid-latitudes
♟️ Ozone depletion (esp. Antarctic ozone hole)
♟️ Climate link: Arctic amplification → more instability & frequent cold outbreaks

*💎 India Angle*
⚠️ No direct impact
♟️ Indirect influence via Western Disturbances pushed by Arctic winds.

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📘 Biomes – Important Themes
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*Supporting Balanced Fertilization:*
*Nutrient-Based Subsidy Rates for Rabi 2025–26*

_Ensuring affordability and productivity in Indian agriculture_

Key Highlights

🌾 The Government *approved the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) rates for Rabi 2025–26* , effective from 1 October 2025 to 31 March 2026, covering Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, including DAP and NPKS grades.

💰 The *tentative budgetary requirement for Rabi 2025–26* is approximately *₹37,952 crore ,about ₹736 crore higher* than the budgetary requirement for the Kharif 2025 season.

📊 Over *₹2.04 lakh crore allocated* between 2022–23 and 2024–25 towards *NBS subsidies* , ensuring affordable access to fertilizers.

🏭 NBS has driven *significant growth in domestic fertilizer production* , with P&K fertilizers (DAP and NPKS) output *increasing from 112.19 LMT in 2014 to 168.55 LMT in 2025* (as on 30.12.2025), reflecting over *50% growth* during the period.

*Correct order to river from North to South*

*Trick:-* " I am JhaCass Respected BosS "

♟️I : Indus
♟️J : Jehlum
♟️C : Chenab
♟️R : Ravi
♟️B : Beas
♟️S : Satluj

*🛡️BATTLE OF BUXAR (1764)*

*♟️REASONS :-* Misuse of Dastaks by company servants. ⚜️Imperial Farman gave right to trade in Bengal without paying transit dues or tolls.
⚜️Servants sold Dastaks to friendly merchants.
⚜️Hence, Mir Kasim abolished all duties.
⚜️Tussle led to war between company and Mir Kasim in 1763. He fled to Awadh.
⚜️Formed an alliance with Nawab of Awadh; Shuja-ud-daula and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

*♟️BATTLE COURSE:* English army led by Hector Munro.

*♟️RESULTS :-* Short and decisive battle won by the English army under Hector Munro.

*♟️OTHER*
⚜️Mir Jafar placed in throne as a mere puppet.
⚜️British supremacy was established in Northern India.

*🛡️FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR*

♟️The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–1769) was the first of four military conflicts fought between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company, along with its allies. It marked the beginning of a series of struggles for control in South India.

*💎Background*
♟️The war took place in South India.
♟️Hyder Ali, the de facto ruler of Mysore, had risen to power and posed a serious threat to British interests in the region.
♟️The British East India Company sought to check Hyder Ali’s growing influence.
♟️Mysore had strategic alliances with the French, while the British were allied with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad—at least initially.

*💎Causes of the War*
♟️Expansionist ambitions of both the British and Hyder Ali.
♟️Breakdown of trust between the East India Company and Indian rulers.
♟️Strategic interests in the Carnatic region and control over South India.
♟️Mysore’s alliance with the French, which threatened British influence.

*💎Key Events*
♟️Hyder Ali surprised the British with his swift military tactics and alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad (though the Nizam later switched sides).
♟️Hyder Ali launched an invasion of the Carnatic, reaching as close as Madras (now Chennai).
♟️The British forces were unprepared and suffered several defeats.
♟️Eventually, both sides agreed to negotiate due to military exhaustion and lack of support.

*💎Outcome*
♟️The war ended with the Treaty of Madras in 1769.
♟️The treaty promised mutual restitution of conquered territories and mutual defense.
It did not resolve underlying tensions, leading to future conflicts.

*💎Significance*
♟️The war exposed weaknesses in the British military position in South India.
♟️It elevated Hyder Ali’s reputation as a skilled military leader.
♟️The British failure to honor the Treaty of Madras later contributed to the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

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*🛡️Important Buddhist Writers*

*1. Ashvaghosha*
♟️Contribution: Authored Buddhacharita in Sanskrit.
♟️Time Period: Contemporary of Kanishka.
♟️Significance: A poet, dramatist, musician, scholar, and debater.

*2. Nagarjuna*
♟️Contribution: Founder of the Madhyamaka School of Mahayana Buddhism.
♟️Time Period: Contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra of Andhra.
♟️Significance: A key proponent of Mahayana Buddhism.

*3. Asanga and Vasubandhu*
♟️Relationship: Brothers from the Punjab region (4th Century CE).
♟️Contributions:
⚜️Asanga: Teacher of Yogachara/Vijnanavada School, founded by his guru Maitreyanatha.
⚜️Vasubandhu: Authored Abhidharmakosha, an encyclopedic work on Buddhism.

*4. Buddhaghosa*
♟️Time Period: 5th Century CE.
♟️Contribution: Pali scholar; authored Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), a comprehensive guide to Theravada Buddhism.

*5. Dinnaga*
♟️Time Period: 5th Century CE.
♟️Contribution: Known as the founder of Buddhist logic.

*6. Dharmakirti*
♟️Time Period: 7th Century CE.
♟️Contribution: Renowned Buddhist logician and dialectician, as well as a subtle philosophical thinker.