Clinical ๐Ÿ…ฑiochemistry
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ู‚ู†ุงุฉ ุชู‡ุชู… ุจู†ุดุฑ ูƒู„ ู…ุงู„ู‡ ุนู„ุงู‚ุฉ ุจุง #ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก_ุงู„ุณุฑูŠุฑูŠุฉ ูˆุงู„ุชุญุงู„ูŠู„ ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุชุนู„ู‚ุฉ ุจู‡ุง .
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๐Ÿ“Œู‚ู†ูˆุงุชู†ุง ุงู„ุงุฎุฑู‰
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@MicroMLS ุงู„ู…ูŠูƒุฑูˆุจูŠู„ูˆุฌูŠ
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Specimen Requirements for calcium Measurement:
====================================
1๏ธโƒฃ Serum or heparinized plasma.
โ›”๏ธ Citrate, oxalate, and EDTA anticoagulants should not be used because they interfere by forming complexes with calcium.
โ›”๏ธ Heparinized plasma may be used but Co-precipitation of calcium with fibrin in heparinized plasma or lipids has been reported with storage or freezing.
โ›”๏ธ Heparin lowers free calcium at the concentrations > 30 U/mL.
โ›”๏ธ The use of liquid heparin should be avoided.

2๏ธโƒฃ Tourniquet use causes an increase in total ( 0.5 - 1.0 mg/dl ), but not in free, calcium associated with tourniquet use and venous occlusion during sampling because of the increase in protein-bound calcium caused by the efflux of water from the vascular compartment during stasis.
โ›”๏ธ If a tourniquet is required, it should be applied just before sampling and released within 1 minute.

3๏ธโƒฃ Standing decreases intravascular water and increases the total calcium concentration by 0.2 to 0.8 mg/dl.

4๏ธโƒฃ Hemodilution caused by recumbency (along with hypoalbuminemia) contributes to the increased prevalence of hypocalcemia (total, but not free calcium) often observed in hospital patients.

5๏ธโƒฃ Fist clenching or other forearm exercise should be avoided before phlebotomy because forearm exercise causes a decrease in pH (lactic acid production) and an increase in free calcium.

6๏ธโƒฃ Specimens for free calcium must be collected anaerobically (syringes and evacuated tubes should be filled completely and sealed ) to minimize alterations in pH due to the loss of CO2 (increase in pH), and specimens should also be handled (maintained on ice ) to prevent the production of lactic acid (decrease in pH) by erythrocytes or white blood cells during anaerobic metabolism or glycolysis. Free calcium changes by about 5% for each 0.1-unit change in pH.
ุชุงุจุน ุงู„ุดุฑุญ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ู†ุดูˆุฑ ุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ู„ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ูƒูŠู ูŠุบูŠู‘ุฑ ุงู„ุงุถุทุฑุงุจ ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุณ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑุŒ ุงูˆ ุงุถุบุท ู…ุจุงุดุฑุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฑุงุจุท โฌ‡๏ธ
https://t.me/Biochem_Lab/587

7๏ธโƒฃ Free calcium is reported to be stable in whole blood specimens for 1 hour at room temperature and for 4 hours at 4C. If analysis is not completed within 1 hour, serum collected in evacuated gel tubes may be the optimal specimen. The tubes should be filled completely. Once centrifuged, specimens are stable for hours
at 25C and for days at 4C, provided the tube remains sealed.
ููŠ ุญุงู„ ุนุฏู… ุชุญู„ูŠู„ ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุงู„ุฏู… ู…ุจุงุดุฑุฉุŒ ูˆุชู… ุงุฑุณุงู„ู‡ุง ุงูˆ ุญูุธู‡ุง ุฏูˆู† ูุตู„ู‡ุง ููŠ ุธุฑูˆู ุจุงุฑุฏุฉ ู„ุชุซุจูŠุท ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ ุชุญู„ู„ ุงู„ุณูƒุฑ ูˆุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ุชุฌู†ู‘ุจ ุชูƒูˆู‘ู† ุงู„ู„ุงูƒุชูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏุŒ ูุฅู† ู‡ุฐุง ุฌูŠุฏ ู„ู„ุญูุงุธ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุงุณ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ู„ู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูˆ ุจุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ ุงู„ุญูุงุธ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ูุนู„ูŠ ู„ู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู…ุŒ ู„ูƒู† ูŠุฌุจ ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ ุงู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุบูŠุฑ ุตุงู„ุญุฉ ู„ูุญุต ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุจูˆุชุงุณูŠูˆู… ุงุฐุง ู…ุง ุงุฑุฏู†ุง ุงูŠุฌุงุฏ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ุงู„ู‰ ุฌุงู†ุจ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู…ุ› ู„ุฃู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ููŠ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ู…ุฑุชูุนุงู‹ ุจุดูƒู„ ุฎุงุทุฆ ุจุณุจุจ ุชุซุจูŠุท ู…ุถุฎุฉ ุงู„ุตูˆุฏูŠูˆู…- ุจูˆุชุงุณูŠูˆู…
Na-K ATPase
ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ โ€“ ุงู„ู…ุถุฎุฉ โ€“ ุชุญุงูุธ ุนู„ู‰ ูุงุฑู‚ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุนุงู„ูŠ ู„ู„ุจูˆุชุงุณูŠูˆู… ุฏุงุฎู„ ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุนู†ู‡ ููŠ ุฎุงุฑุฌู‡ุงุŒ ูููŠ ุญุงู„ุฉ ุชุซุจูŠุท ุนู…ู„ู‡ุงุŒ ุจุณุจุจ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุฏุฉุŒ ุณูŠุฎุฑุฌ ุงู„ุจูˆุชุงุณูŠูˆู… ู…ู† ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจู„ุงุฒู…ุง ููŠุฑุชูุน ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡.


8๏ธโƒฃ Urine specimens should be in 20-30 mL of 6 mol/L HCI per 24-hour specimen (1 to 2 mL for a random specimen) to prevent calcium salt precipitation. Addition of acid after the collection may not completely dissolve precipitated calcium salts.

ุงู† ุดุงุก ุงู„ู„ู‡ ุณูˆู ู†ุฎุตุต ุฏุฑุณ ุฎุงุต ู†ุดุฑุญ ููŠู‡ ูƒูŠู ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุงู„ุญุตูˆู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู…ู† ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ( ุงูŠุงู‹ ูƒุงู† ู†ูˆุนู‡ุง ) ู„ุญูุธ ุนูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุจูˆู„ ( ู„ุฃูŠ ูุญุต ูƒุงู† ). ูููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ - ู„ู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… - ูŠุทู„ุจ ุญุฌู… ู…ุนูŠู† ( 20-30 ู…ู„ ) ู…ู† ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉุŒ ูˆุชุญุถูŠุฑู‡ ู‚ุฏ ูŠูƒูˆู† ุณู‡ู„ุงู‹ ุนู†ุฏ ุงู„ุงุบู„ุจูŠุฉ ุงุฐุง ู…ุง ุนูุฑูููŽ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ ูƒุฃู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ู…ูƒุชูˆุจุงู‹ ุนู„ู‰ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ -ู…ุซู„ุงู‹- ุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ 10 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉุŒ ู„ูƒู† ูƒู… ูŠูƒูˆู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ โ€“ ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ - ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ูƒุชูˆุจ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ู‡ูˆ 35% ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ุŸ ูƒูŠู ู†ุญุถู‘ุฑ ุญุฌู… 25 ู…ู„ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ู…ู† ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ 35% ุŸุŸ ุณู†ุฎุตุต ุฏุฑุณ ู„ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ูˆุถูˆุน ุจุนุฏ ุงู„ุงู†ุชู‡ุงุก ู…ู† ุฏุฑุณ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู† ุดุงุก ุงู„ู„ู‡..
โ—Žโ—โ” @Biochem_Lab โ”โ—โ—Žโ€ข

https://telegram.me/joinchat/AAAAAECuqoTkgQkHpiHlGA
Hypercalcemia:
============

๐Ÿ…พ Hypercalcemia results when blood calcium levels in a subject are above the expected normal range of a healthy population.

๐Ÿ…พ Causes:
1โƒฃ Two of the more common causes of hypercalcemia are:

๐Ÿ”ป Hyperparathyroidism (A common cause of chronic hypercalcemia): an increase in parathyroid gland function caused by a benign tumor of the parathyroid gland. This form of hypercalcemia is usually mild and can be present for many years before being noticed.

๐Ÿ”ป Cancer (The most common cause of acute hypercalcemia ): can cause hypercalcemia when it spreads to the bones.Cancer can produces a hormone similar to PTH ( parathyroid hormone related peptide,PTHrp ), which has an activity similar to that of PTH in that it can increase the concentration of plasma calcium. However, unlike PTH, the release of PTHrp is not controlled by the concentration of ionized calcium.. Furthermore, cytokines and prostaglandins produced by tumours that metastasize to bones may increase bone resorption, which, in turn, releases calcium and contributes towards the raised plasma concentrations.

โ—Žโ—โ” @Biochem_Lab โ”โ—โ—Žโ€ข


2โƒฃ Some other causes of hypercalcemia include:

๐Ÿ”ป Sarcoidosis and tuberculosis: graulomatous diseases contain macrophages in which there is increased conversion of 25(OH) vitamin D (inactive) to 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D (active).

๐Ÿ”ป Prolonged immobilization for example as in Pagetโ€™s disease:* there is decreased bone formation but continual resorption of bone and release of calcium that is lost in the urine.
๐Ÿ”ป Excess vitamin D intake
๐Ÿ”ป Thiazide diuretics: diuretics can reduce renal calcium excretion
๐Ÿ”ป Othersโ€ฆ.
Hypocalcemia:
============

Causes:
โ€”โ€”โ€”โ€”โ€”
1๏ธโƒฃ The most common cause of low total calcium is:
Low blood protein levels, especially a low level of albumin, which can result from liver disease or malnutrition, both of which may result from alcoholism or other illnesses. With low albumin, only the bound calcium is low while ionized calcium remains normal, and calcium metabolism is being regulated appropriately.


2๏ธโƒฃ Some other causes of hypocalcemia include:

๐Ÿ”ป Underactive parathyroid gland (hypoparathyroidism)
๐Ÿ”ป Inherited resistance to the effects of parathyroid hormone
๐Ÿ”ป Extreme deficiency in dietary calcium
๐Ÿ”ป Decreased levels of vitamin D
๐Ÿ”ป Magnesium deficiency
๐Ÿ”ป Increased levels of phosphorus
๐Ÿ”ป Acute inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis)
๐Ÿ”ป Renal failure.
ู„ู…ุฒูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุนู„ูˆู…ุงุช ุญูˆู„ ุฒูŠุงุฏุฉ ูˆู†ู‚ุตุงู† ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุฏู… ุงู„ุฑุฌุงุก ุฒูŠุงุฑุฉ ู…ู†ุดูˆุฑุงุช ุณุงุจู‚ุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู‚ู†ุงุฉ ุจุงู„ุถุบุท ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฑูˆุงุจุท ุงุฏู†ุงู‡ โคต๏ธโคต๏ธ
https://t.me/Biochem_Lab/320
https://t.me/Biochem_Lab/321



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โœจ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ
Adjusted or Corrected Total Calcium for albumin concentration:
โœจ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ
==================================
๐Ÿ…พ Changes in the concentration of albumin in plasma affect the total Ca concentration but not the free Ca content.โ˜ž A low plasma albumin concentration produces a low total plasma Ca concentration and, conversely, a high plasma albumin concentration gives rise to a high total plasma Ca concentration.

๐Ÿ…พ (1 g/dl of albumin binds approximately 0.8 mg/dl of calcium).
๐Ÿ‘Œ The effect of these changes can be overcome by measuring free Ca.

๐Ÿ…พ Equations:
=========
๐Ÿ…ฐ When [albumin] is less than 4.0 g/dl then:
Corrected Calcium (mg/dl) =
measured total Ca + 0.8 (4 โ€“ Albumin [g/dl] ).

๐Ÿ…ฑ When [albumin] is more than 4.5 g/dl then:
Corrected Calcium (mg/dl) =
measured total Ca โ€“ 0.8 (albumin โ€“ 4.5 [g/dl])

Because ionized calcium best correlates with the biological activity of calcium, as well as with symptoms of hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia, the direct measurement of it may often be more valuable clinically.

๐Ÿ…พ Since the free Ca2+ concentration is unaffected by variations in the concentration of albumin, clinical symptoms are not manifested. However, free Ca2+ competes with H+ for negatively charged binding sites on albumin and changes in the concentration of free Ca2+ may occur in acute acidโ€“base disorders, with clinical consequences. These do not, however, affect the total plasma Ca2+ concentration. In alkalosis, more H+ dissociates from albumin allowing increased amounts of free Ca2+ to bind to it. This has the effect of increasing the protein bound Ca2+ fraction but at the expense of decreasing the free plasma Ca2+ leading to hypocalcemia. In acidosis, increasing amounts of H+ bind to albumin as Ca2+ dissociates from it, decreasing the protein bound Ca2+ and increasing free plasma Ca2+ producing hypercalcemia.


๐Ÿ…พ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ู…ุดุญูˆู† ุจุดุญู†ุฉ ู…ูˆุฌุจุฉ ูˆุงูŠุถุง ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ู…ุดุญูˆู† ุจุดุญู†ุฉ ู…ูˆุฌุจุฉ. ูŠุญุฏุซ ุชู†ุงูุณ ุจูŠู† ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ูˆุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ู„ู„ุฅุฑุชุจุงุท ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ุดุญู†ุฉ ุงู„ุณุงู„ุจุฉ ู„ู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู†ุŒ ูˆุงุฑุชุจุงุท ูƒู„ ู…ู†ู‡ู…ุง - ููŠ ุงู„ุญุงู„ุฉ ุงู„ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉ - ูŠูƒูˆู† ููŠ ุญุงู„ุฉ ุชูˆุงุฒู†. ููŠ ุญุงู„ ู†ู‚ุต ุฐุฑุงุช ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ุฏู… ( โ†‘ PH ุŒ ูˆุณุท ู‚ุงุนุฏูŠ ) ุชู†ูุตู„ ุฐุฑุงุช ู…ู† ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุฑุชุจุทุฉ ู…ุน ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู† ู„ุชุนูˆูŠุถ ุงู„ู†ู‚ุต ููŠ ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ุงู„ุฏู…ุŒ ุชุงุฑูƒุฉู‹ ู…ูˆุงู‚ุน ุญุฑู‘ุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู† ุชุฑุชุจุท ุงู„ูŠู‡ุง ุงูŠูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ููŠุฒูŠุฏ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ู…ุฑุชุจุท ุนู„ู‰ ุญุณุงุจ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ุงูŠ ุงู†ู‘ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ูŠู‚ู„ุŒ ูˆุงู„ุนูƒุณ ูŠุญุฏุซ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุชุฒูŠุฏ ุงูŠูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ( โ†“ PH ุŒ ูˆุณุท ุญุงู…ุถูŠ ) ูุฅู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฐุฑุงุช ุชู†ุงูุณ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงูƒุซุฑ ู„ู„ุฅุฑุชุจุงุท ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู† ููŠู‚ู„ ุงุฑุชุจุงุท ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุชูŠู† ูˆูŠุจู‚ู‰ ุญุฑุงู‹ ูุชุฒูŠุฏ ุจุฐู„ูƒ ุงูŠูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑุฉ.
ู„ุฐู„ูƒ ูŠููุถู‘ู„ ูุญุต ุงู„ู€PH ู„ูƒู„ ุนูŠู†ุฉ ู…ุทู„ูˆุจุงู‹ ู„ู‡ุง ูุญุต ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑุŒ ุฎุงุตุฉ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฃุชูŠ ู…ู† ุฎุงุฑุฌ ุงู„ู…ุฎุชุจุฑุŒ ู„ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ู‡ู„ ุชู… ุณุญุจ ูˆูุตู„ ูˆุงุฑุณุงู„ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุจุงู„ุดูƒู„ ุงู„ุตุญูŠุญ ุงู… ู„ุงุŸ ูู‚ุฏ ูŠู„ุฒู…ู†ุง ุนู†ุฏู‡ุง ุชุตุญูŠุญ ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ู€PH ู„ู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุงูƒุจุฑ ุงูˆ ุงู‚ู„ ู…ู† 7.4 ุญุณุจ ู…ุนุงุฏู„ุฉ ุฎุงุตุฉ ( ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู„ุฉ ู…ู†ุดูˆุฑุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู‚ู†ุงุฉ ู…ุณุจู‚ุง ูˆูŠู…ูƒู† ุงู„ุฑุฌูˆุน ุงู„ูŠู‡ุง )ุŒ ุบูŠุฑ ุงู†ู‘ูŽู‡ุŒ ุญุชู‰ ูˆููŠ ุญุงู„ุฉ ูƒุงู†ุช ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ุงุณ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ู…ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑุฉ ุณูˆุงุก ู‚ุงุนุฏูŠุฉ ุงูˆ ุญุงู…ุถูŠุฉุŒ ูู‚ุฏ ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุตุญูŠุญ ูˆูู‚ ุงู„ู…ุนุงุฏู„ุฉ ุฎุงุทุฆุงู‹ ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุถ ุงุตู„ุงู‹ ูŠุนุงู†ูŠ ู…ู† ุงู„ู€ acidosis or alkalosis.

๐Ÿ‘Œ ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ : ุงู†ู‡ ููŠ ุญุงู„ ู†ู‚ุต ุงู„ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู…ูŠู† ูŠู‚ู„ ุงู„ุชูˆุชุงู„ ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ู„ุง ูŠุชุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ุญุฑุŒ ูˆููŠ ุญุงู„ุฉ ุงู„ุชุบูŠุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุงุณ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ูŠุชุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ุญุฑ โ€“ุฒูŠุงุฏุฉ ุงูˆ ู†ู‚ุตุงู† - ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ู„ุง ูŠุชุบูŠุฑ ุงู„ุชูˆุชุงู„ ู„ุงู† ุงู„ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ ุนูƒุณูŠุฉ: ุฒูŠุงุฏุฉ ุงูˆ ู†ู‚ุตุงู† ุงุญุฏู‡ู…ุง ูŠูƒูˆู† ุนู„ู‰ ุญุณุงุจ ุงู„ุขุฎุฑุŒ ูุงู„ุชูˆุชุงู„ ูŠุจู‚ู‰ ุซุงุจุชุงู‹.
โ™ฆ๏ธ ู…ู…ุง ุณุจู‚ ู†ูู‡ู… ุงู†ู‡ ููŠ ุญุงู„ ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ ููŠ:
โ—๏ธ ุงู„ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู…ูŠู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุตุญูŠุญ ู„ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ูƒู„ูŠ ( ุงู„ุชูˆุชุงู„ ) ูู‚ุทู€ุŒ ุงู…ุง ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ูู„ุง ูŠุชุฃุซุฑ.
โ€ผ๏ธ ูˆููŠ ุญุงู„ ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุงุณ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ ูู„ุง ุชุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ูƒู„ูŠุŒ ูˆูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุตุญูŠุญ ู„ู†ุชูŠุฌุฉ ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุญุฑ ูู‚ุท ุจุดุฑุท ุงู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุบูŠุฑ ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุงุณ ู†ุงุชุฌ ุจุณุจุจ ุณูˆุก ุณุญุจ ุงูˆ ู†ู‚ู„ ุงูˆ ูุตู„ ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุงู„ุฏู… ุŒ ูˆ ุงู†ู‘ ุงู„ู…ุฑูŠุถ ู„ุง ูŠุนุงู†ูŠ ู‡ูˆ ุงุตู„ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุงุถุทุฑุงุจ ููŠ ุงูุณู‘ู‡ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู†ูŠ.

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PTH, Parathyroid hormone, parathormone or parathyrin:
โœจ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ๐Ÿƒ๐Ÿ‚๐ŸŒบ
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โ™ฆ๏ธ Parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone or parathyrin, is the most important endocrine regulator of calcium and phosphorus concentration in extracellular fluid. This hormone is secreted from cells of the parathyroid glands and finds its major target cells in bone and kidney.

โ™ฆ๏ธ High PTH levels stimulate the conversion of 25ยฌ(OH)D (inactive) to 1,25ยฌ(OH)2D (active), while low PTH levels allows 25ยฌ(OH)D to be metabolized to 24,25ยฌ(OH)2D (inactive) instead of 1,25ยฌ(OH)2D.

Addition information on how parathyroid hormone and vitamin D control calcium balance can be found in this channel, please check the link below

https://t.me/Biochem_Lab/580

โ™ฆ๏ธPrimary hyperparathyroidism:
Primary hyperparathyroidism results from parathyroid adenoma.
Most commonly results from a benign tumor affecting one of the four parathyroid glands. Occasionally, all four glands are enlarged. Excessive secretion of PTH results in increased bone resorption, increased renal reabsorption of calcium, and increased production of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D (and thus increased intestinal calcium absorption). These combined actions result in hypercalcemia and, over time, bone loss due to hyperresorption. A similar syndrome occurs in patients with malignant (nonparathyroid) tumors that secrete large amounts of PTHrP.

โ™ฆ๏ธ Secondary hyperparathyroidism:
Secondary hyperparathyroidism is a result of hypocalcemia secondary to renal insufficiency or intestinal malabsorption.
can occur as a result of conditions that produce chronic hypocalcemia such as chronic renal failure. Hypocalcemia has both a direct stimulatory effect on PTH secretion and an indirect effect by promoting the increased proliferation of parathyroid cells. Over time, chronic hypocalcemia produces a massive increase in the size of the parathyroid glands due to hyperplasia. This results in very high circulating levels of PTH and excessive bone resorption, often resulting in bone pain and fragility.

โ™ฆ๏ธ Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is a state of excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) after a long period of secondary hyperparathyroidism and resulting in a high blood calcium level.

โ™ฆ๏ธ Pseudohypoparathyroidism is a condition where excessive secretion of PTH occurs because the target tissues fail to respond to this hormone (resistance) and hypocalcaemia persists.

Action of PTH โคต๏ธโคต๏ธ

https://t.me/Biochem_Lab/580

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Ca and PTH tests Interpretation, See image above โคด๏ธ โคด๏ธ

๐Ÿ†” @Biochem_Lab
Ca and PTH tests Interpretation, :

1๏ธโƒฃ Ca โ†“
PTH โ†‘
then the parathyroid glands are responding appropriately, producing appropriate amounts of PTH. Investigate a low calcium level further by measuring vitamin D, phosphorus, and magnesium levels.
โ—Žโ—โ” @Biochem_Lab โ”โ—โ—Žโ€ข

2๏ธโƒฃ Ca โ†“
PTH โ†’ or โ†“
then PTH is not responding properly ( hypoparathyroidism ). Hypoparathyroidism is a failure of the parathyroid glands to produce sufficient PTH. It may be due to a variety of conditions and may be persistent, progressive, or transient. Causes include an autoimmune disorder, parathyroid damage or removal during surgery, a genetic condition, or a severe illness. Those affected will generally have low PTH levels, low calcium levels, and high phosphorus levels.

๐Ÿ…ฑยบยฐโ€˜ยจ([ @Biochem_Lab ])ยจโ€˜ยฐยบ๐Ÿ…ฑ

3๏ธโƒฃ Ca โ†‘
PTH โ†‘
then the parathyroid glands are producing inappropriately high amounts of PTH ( hyperparathyroidism ). Hyperparathyroidism is a group of conditions characterized by an overproduction of PTH by the parathyroid glands that is separated into primary, secondary, and tertiary hyperparathyroidism.

4๏ธโƒฃ Ca โ†‘
PTH โ†“
then the parathyroid glands are responding properly.
Perform further investigations to check for non-parathyroid-related reasons for the elevated calcium, such as rare mutations in calcium receptors or tumors that secrete a peptide ( PTH related peptide, PTHrP ) that has PTH-like activity and increases calcium concentration, which in turn decreases PTH.

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ุชุฎููŠู ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุญุงู„ูŠู„:
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ู…ู† ุงู„ุงู…ูˆุฑ ุงู„ู…ู‡ู…ู‘ุฉ ูˆุงู„ุงูˆู„ูŠุฉ ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠุฌุจ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒู„ ู…ุฎุจุฑูŠ ู…ุนุฑูุชู‡ุง ู‡ูŠ ูƒูŠููŠุฉ ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒุŒ ูู…ุซู„ ู‡ูƒุฐุง ู…ูˆุถูˆุน ูŠูุตุงุฏูู†ุง ูƒุซูŠุฑุง ุงุซู†ุงุก ุนู…ู„ู†ุง ูƒู…ุฎุจุฑูŠูŠู† ุ› ูˆุงู„ุณุจุจ ููŠ ุฐู„ูƒ ูŠุนูˆุฏ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู†ู‘ ุงู„ู…ูˆุงุฏ ุชูˆุฑู‘ุฏ ุงู„ูŠู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ูŠุฆุฉ ู…ุญุงู„ูŠู„ ู…ุฑูƒู‘ุฒุฉ ู„ุชุฎููŠู ู†ูู‚ุงุช ุงู„ู†ู‚ู„ ูˆู„ุฅุชุงุญุฉ ุงู„ูุฑุตุฉ ู„ุชุญุถูŠุฑ ุงูƒุซุฑ ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู…ุฎุชู„ู ู…ู† ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ู…ุฑูƒู‘ุฒ ูˆุงุญุฏ.. ูุจุฏู„ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุดุฑุงุก 10 ู„ุชุฑุงุช ู…ู† ( ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ูƒุจุฑูŠุชูƒ ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ ) ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ 2 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ูŠ ุดุฑุงุก ู„ุชุฑ ูˆุงุญุฏ ูู‚ุท ู…ู† ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 18 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑุŒ ูˆุงูƒูˆู† ุจุฐู„ูƒ ู‚ู„ู„ุช ู…ู† ู†ูู‚ุฉ ุงู„ู†ู‚ู„ ูˆู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุณุงุญุฉ ุงู„ุฒุงุฆุฏุฉ ู„ุชุฎุฒูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ุŒ ูƒู…ุง ุงู†ูŠ ุงุณุชุทูŠุน ู…ู†ู‡ ุชุญุถูŠุฑ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุงุฑูŠุฏู‡ ุจุฏู„ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุดุฑุงุก ุงูƒุซุฑ ู…ู† ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุจุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ.

๐Ÿ…ฑยบยฐโ€˜ยจ([ @Biochem_Lab ])ยจโ€˜ยฐยบ๐Ÿ…ฑ

ุงู„ุดุงู‡ุฏ ู…ู† ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฏุฑุณ ู‡ูˆ ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ูƒูŠู ู†ุญุถู‘ุฑ ุงูˆ ู†ุฎูู "ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ" ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู…ุนู„ูˆู… ู…ุณุจู‚ุงู‹ ุงู„ู‰ ุงูŠ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ุŒ ูˆูŠู…ูƒู† ุชุทุจูŠู‚ ู…ุง ุณู†ุฏุฑุณู‡ ุงู„ูŠูˆู… ุนู„ู‰ ุงูŠ ู…ุญุงู„ูŠู„ ูƒุงู†ุช ุณูˆุงุก ุงุญู…ุงุถ ุงูˆ ุบูŠุฑู‡ุง ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุญุชุงุฌ ุงู„ู‰ ุชุฎููŠู.
ูุนู„ู‰ ุณุจูŠู„ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ ุฌุงุก ู…ุฑูŠุถ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ูˆู…ุนู‡ ูˆุฑู‚ุฉ ู…ูƒุชูˆุจ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง:
Calcium, 24 Hour Urine
ูŠุชุทู„ุจ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูุญุต ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูŠูˆุฑูŠู† 24 ุณุงุนุฉ ุฏุงุฎู„ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ู…ุถุงู ุงู„ูŠู‡ุง - ู…ุณุจู‚ุง - ุญู…ุถ ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ "ู…ุนูŠู‘ู†" ูƒู…ุงุฏุฉ ุญุงูุธุฉ. ูุฅุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ู†ูุณ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ุญูุธ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูู„ุง ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ู†ูˆุงุฌู‡ู‡ุงุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู† ุงู„ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ุชูƒู…ู† ููŠู…ุง ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ูŠุฎุชู„ู ุนู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ุญูุธ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูƒุฃู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ุงุนู„ู‰ ุงูˆ ุงู‚ู„ ู…ุซู„ุงู‹.
ุงู„ุจุนุถ ู‚ุฏ ู„ุง ูŠูˆุงุฌู‡ ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ู‡ู†ุง ุงูŠุถุงู‹ ููŠ ุญุงู„ ุงู„ุงุฎุชู„ุงู ููŠ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒูŠู† ( ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูˆ ุงู„ู…ุฏูˆู‘ู† ุนู„ู‰ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ) ุจุฅุณุชุฎุฏุงู…ู‡ ู„ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ูˆุงู„ุฐูŠ ุณู†ุนุฑูู‡ ููŠ ู…ุซุงู„ ุขุชูุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู†ู‡ู… ู‚ุฏ ูŠูˆุงุฌู‡ูˆู† ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุตุนูˆุจุงุช ููŠู…ุง ู„ูˆ ูƒุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู…ูƒุชูˆุจุงู‹ ุจู€ "ุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠุฉ "%" ูˆู„ูŠุณ ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ "M ..
ูุจุนุถ ุดุฑูƒุงุช ุงู„ุชุตู†ูŠุน ุชุฏูˆู‘ู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุนู„ู‰ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู†ู‡ 11.45 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ ( ูู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ุจูƒู„ ุณู‡ูˆู„ุฉ ) ุŒ ูˆุงู„ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุงุฎุฑ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ุชุฏูˆู‘ู†ู‡ ุจู€ 36 % ุŒ ( ููƒูŠู ู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… ุงู„ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† ู‡ู†ุง ) ุŸ

๐Ÿ‘Œู„ุงุญุธ ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุงู…ุซู„ุฉ ู„ุชุฏูˆูŠู† ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ุจุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุงุณูู„ุŒ ู…ุน ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ ุงู† ู…ุง ุณู†ุฃุฎุฐู‡ ู…ู† ุงู…ุซู„ุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุงุณูู„ ูŠู†ุทุจู‚ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒู„ ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ูˆู…ุง ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงู„ู…ุฐูƒูˆุฑ ููŠ ุงู„ุงู…ุซู„ุฉ ุงู„ุขุชูŠุฉ ุฅู„ุง ู…ุซุงู„ุงู‹ ู„ู„ุชุนุงู…ู„ ู…ุน ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ุงู„ุงุฎุฑู‰ ูƒุงู„ุจูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ูˆุงู„ู†ุชุฑูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ูˆุบูŠุฑู‡ุง..
https://telegram.me/joinchat/AAAAAECuqoTkgQkHpiHlGA

ุฏุนูˆู†ุง ู†ุชุนุฑู‘ู ุนู„ู‰ ูƒูŠููŠุฉ ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุฎุชู„ู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุฏูˆู‘ู†ุฉ ุณูˆุงุก ูƒุงู†ุช ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ ุงูˆ ุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠุฉ ูˆุณู†ุฐูƒุฑ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ูƒู…ุซุงู„ :
ูุญุต ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุฆูŠ ( ุงู„ูƒุงู„ุณูŠูˆู… ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ ) ูŠุชุทู„ุจ ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุนูŠู†ุฉ ูŠูˆุฑูŠู† ู„ู…ุฏุฉ 24 ุณุงุนุฉุŒ ููŠ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ู…ุถุงู ุงู„ูŠู‡ุง โ€“ ู…ุณุจู‚ุง - ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ( 20 ู…ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ) ุŒ ูˆู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุฎุชุจุฑ ุงุฑุจุนุฉ ุงุญู…ุงุถ ู…ู† ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุจุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ู‡ูŠ:
1๏ธโƒฃ 4 mol/L
2๏ธโƒฃ 6 mol/L
3๏ธโƒฃ 10 mol/L
4๏ธโƒฃ 36 %
ููƒูŠู ุชูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุงุถุงูุฉ ุงูˆ ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู ู…ู† ูƒู„ ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู‰ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุงู„ูŠูˆุฑูŠู† ุŸ
ุงู„ุฅุฌุงุจุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ู†ุดูˆุฑ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูŠู„ูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ุงุณูู„ ๐Ÿ‘‡๐Ÿ‘‡
ุงู„ุงุฌุงุจุฉ ูƒุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ:

1๏ธโƒฃ Prepare ( 20 ml of 6 mol/L HCL ) from ( 4 mol/L HCL ):

ู„ุง ูŠู…ูƒู† ุชุญุถูŠุฑ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงุนู„ู‰ ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู‚ู„.. ูู„ุง ูŠู…ูƒู† ุชุญุถูŠุฑ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 4 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ.
( ู„ุง ูŠู…ูƒู†ูƒ ุดุฑุงุก ุณู„ุนุฉ ู…ุง ุจู€ 80 ุฑูŠุงู„ุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุชู…ุชู„ูƒ ููŠู‡ 60 ุฑูŠุงู„ุงู‹ ) .


2๏ธโƒฃ Prepare ( 20 ml of 6 mol/L HCL ) from ( 6 mol/L HCL ):

๐Ÿ…ฑยบยฐโ€˜ยจ([ @Biochem_Lab ])ยจโ€˜ยฐยบ๐Ÿ…ฑ

ู‡ู†ุง ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ( 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ูˆุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ ) ูู„ุง ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉ ู…ุน ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง. ู†ุถูŠู 20 ู…ู„ ู…ุจุงุดุฑุฉ ู„ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุงู„ูŠูˆุฑูŠู† ุฏูˆู† ุงู„ุญุงุฌุฉ ู„ู„ุชุฎููŠูุ› ู„ุฃู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ู†ูุณ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ุญูุธ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ.

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3๏ธโƒฃ Prepare ( 20 ml of 6 mol/L HCL ) from ( 10 mol/L HCL ):

ู‡ู†ุง ู†ุฎูู ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุฅุณุชุฎุฏุงู… ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ูˆู‡ูˆ:
C1 V1 = C2 V2
C1 = ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุงู„ู…ุฑุงุฏ ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู ู…ู†ู‡ ( 10 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ )
V1 = ุญุฌู… ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุงู„ู…ุฑุงุฏ ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู ู…ู†ู‡ ( ู…ุฌู‡ูˆู„ )
C2 = ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ( 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ )
V2 = ุงู„ุญุฌู… ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ( 20 ู…ู„ )
10ร—? = 6ร—20 โ†’
? = (6ร—20)/10 = 12
ุงุฐุงู‹: ู†ุฃุฎุฐ 12 ู…ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ูˆู†ุถูŠูู‡ุง ุงู„ู‰ 8 ู…ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุงุก ุงู„ู…ู‚ุทุฑ ูˆุจุฐุง ู†ูƒูˆู† ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุญุฌู… 20 ู…ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ.
( ูŠู…ูƒู†ูƒ ุฏูุน 80 ุฑูŠุงู„ุงู‹ ุซู…ู†ุงู‹ ู„ุณู„ุนุฉ ู…ุง ุฏูˆู† ุชุฑุฏุฏ ูˆู„ุง ุญุณุงุจุ› ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู…ุง ุชู…ู„ูƒ ู…ู† ู…ุงู„ ู‡ูˆ ู†ูุณ ุงูˆ ุงูƒุจุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุซู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ุดุฑุงุก ุงู„ุณู„ุนุฉ ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ูŠู† 2 ูˆูŽ 3 ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุชูˆุงู„ูŠ ) .


4๏ธโƒฃ Prepare ( 20 ml of 6 mol/L HCL ) from ( %36 HCL ):
ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ู…ูƒุชูˆุจุงู‹ ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ ูู„ุง ุชูˆุฌุฏ ุฃูŠ ู…ุดูƒู„ุฉุŒ ูƒู„ ู…ุง ุนู„ูŠู†ุง ูู‚ุท ู‡ูˆ ุชุทุจูŠู‚ ุงู„ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ ุฑู‚ู… 3ุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ูŠุฃุชูŠ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุนู„ูŠู‡ุง ู…ูƒุชูˆุจุงู‹ ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠุฉ (%)ุŒ ูู‡ู„ ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุชุทุจูŠู‚ ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ุงู… ู„ุง ุŸุŸ
ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑ ูˆุจูƒู„ ุณู‡ู„ูˆู„ุฉ ูƒุงู„ุชุงู„ูŠ:
ู„ุงุจุฏ ู„ู†ุง ุงูˆู„ุงู‹: ู…ู† ุชุญูˆูŠู„ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠ (36%) ุงู„ู‰ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠ (ู…ูˆู„/ู„ุชุฑ).
ูˆุซุงู†ูŠุงู‹: ุชุทุจูŠู‚ ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ( ุดุฑูŠุทุฉ ุงู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุจุนุฏ ุงู„ุชุญูˆูŠู„ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ "ุงูƒุจุฑ" ู…ู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ ูˆู‡ูˆ ู‡ู†ุง (6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) ูˆุงู„ุง ูู„ุง ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู.
Molarity =
(%ร—10ร—density) / molecular weight
Molarity = ( 36ร—10ร—1.16 ) / 36.46
= 11.45 mol/L
ุงู„ุงู† ุจุนุฏ ุงู† ุนุฑูู†ุง ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ ูˆุนุฑูู†ุง ุงู†ู‡ ุงูƒุจุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจ ู„ุญูุธ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุณู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… - ูˆุจูƒู„ ุจุณุงุทุฉ - ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู:
C1 V1 = C2 V2
11.45ร—? = 6ร—20
? = 120/11.45 โ†’ 10.5
ุงุฐุงู‹: ู†ุฃุฎุฐ (10.5 ู…ู„) ู…ู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ูˆู†ุถูŠูู‡ุง ุงู„ู‰ (9.5 ู…ู„) ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุงุก ุงู„ู…ู‚ุทุฑ ูˆุจุฐุง ู†ูƒูˆู† ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุญุฌู… 20 ู…ู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุจุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ.
( ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠูƒ 10 ุฏูˆู„ุงุฑุงุช ุงู…ุฑูŠูƒูŠุฉ ูˆุซู…ู† ุงู„ุณู„ุนุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฑูŠุฏู‡ุง ู‡ูˆ 80 ุฑูŠุงู„ุงู‹ุŒ ูู‡ู„ ุชุณุชุทูŠุน ุฏูุน ุซู…ู† ุงู„ุณู„ุนุฉ ุงู… ู„ุงุŸ
ููŠ ุงู„ุจุฏุงูŠุฉ ูŠุฌุจ ุนู„ูŠูƒ ุชุญูˆูŠู„ ู…ุงู„ุฏูŠูƒ ู…ู† ุงู„ุนู…ู„ุฉ ุงู„ุงุฌู†ุจูŠุฉ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ุนู…ู„ุฉ ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูŠุฉุŒ ูˆุจุงู„ู†ุธุฑ ุงู„ู‰ ู…ู‚ุฏุงุฑ ู…ุง ุชุญูˆู‘ู„ ู…ู† ู…ุงู„ ุจุงู„ุนู…ู„ุฉ ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูŠุฉ ุณุชุนุฑู ู…ุง ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุจุฅุณุชุทุงุนุชูƒ ุฏูุน 80 ุฑูŠุงู„ุงู‹ ุซู…ู†ุงู‹ ู„ู„ุณู„ุนุฉ ุงู… ู„ุง ).

ู…ู„ุงุญุธุฉ: ุงู„ูƒุซุงูุฉ ู†ุฌุฏู‡ุง ู…ูƒุชูˆุจุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‚ุงุฑูˆุฑุฉ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุถู…ู† ู…ูƒูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุŒ ูˆู„ูƒู„ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ูƒุซุงูุชู‡ุŒ ููƒุซุงูุฉ ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุฐูˆ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ 36% ู‡ูŠ 1.16 ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฎุชู„ู ุนู† ูƒุซุงูุฉ ู†ูุณ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ู„ูˆ ุงุฎุชู„ูุช ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุงู„ุญุฑุงุฑุฉ ุงูˆ ุงุฎุชู„ู ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ 30% ู…ุซู„ุงู‹.

https://telegram.me/joinchat/AAAAAECuqoTkgQkHpiHlGA
ู…ู„ุฎุต:
ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ (6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) "ุงูƒุจุฑ" ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง (4 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) - ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„1 - ูู„ุง ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู.

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ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ ูˆ ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ู…ุชุณุงูˆูŠูŠู† (ูƒู„ู ู…ู†ู‡ู…ุง 6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) - ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„2 โ€“ ู†ุถูŠู ุงู„ูƒู…ูŠุฉ ุงู„ู…ุทู„ูˆุจุฉ ู…ุจุงุดุฑุฉ ( 20 ู…ู„ ู…ุซู„ุงู‹ ) ุฏูˆู† ุงู„ุญุงุฌุฉ ู„ู„ุชุฎููŠู.

ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ (6 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) "ุงู‚ู„" ู…ู† ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง (11.45 ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑ) โ€“ ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„3 - ู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ"
C1 V1 = C2 V2

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ุงุฐุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒู‡ ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠุฉ "%" โ€“ ูƒู…ุง ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„4 - ูู„ุงุจุฏ ู„ู†ุง ุงูˆู„ุงู‹ ู…ู† ุชุญูˆูŠู„ ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ู…ู† "ุงู„ู…ุฆูˆูŠุฉ" ุงู„ู‰ "ุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ" ุŒ ูˆู…ู† ุซู… ู†ุณุชุฎุฏู… ู‚ุงู†ูˆู† "ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุชุฑุงูƒูŠุฒ" ุจูƒู„ ุณู‡ูˆู„ุฉ ุดุฑูŠุทุฉ ุงู† ูŠูƒูˆู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุจุนุฏ ุงู„ุชุญูˆูŠู„ ุงู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ูˆู„ุงุฑูŠุฉ "ุงูƒุจุฑ" ู…ู† ุงู„ุชุฑูƒูŠุฒ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู†ุฑูŠุฏู‡ ูˆุงู„ุง ูู„ุง ู†ุณุชุทูŠุน ุงู„ุชุฎููŠู.

ูƒู„ ุงู„ุงู…ุซู„ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุงุฎุฐู†ุงู‡ุง ุนู† ุชุฎููŠู ุงู„ุงุญู…ุงุถ ุชู†ุทุจู‚ ุนู„ู‰ ุฃูŠ ุญู…ุถ ูˆู„ูŠุณุช ุญุตุฑูŠุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆูƒู„ูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏุŒ ูุจุนุถ ุงู„ูุญูˆุตุงุช ุนู„ู‰ ุนูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ูŠูˆุฑูŠู† ุชุชุทู„ุจ ุงุญู…ุงุถ ุงุฎุฑู‰ ูƒุงู„ุจูˆุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ุงูˆ ุงู„ู†ุชุฑูŠูƒ ุงุณูŠุฏ ...ุงู„ุฎ.

#ู‚ู†ุงุฉ_ุงู„ูƒูŠู…ูŠุงุก_ุงู„ุณุฑูŠุฑูŠุฉ
#ุงู„ุฏูƒุชูˆุฑ ุณู…ูŠุญ ุนุจุฏุงู„ุฑุญู…ู†

โœ… ู„ู„ุงู†ุถู…ุงู… ู„ู†ุง:๐Ÿ‘‡
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Clinical Practice Guidelines Update for the Chronic Kidney Disease 2017
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โ˜ž @Biochem_Lab โ˜œ
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Some Principles of Measurement:
=========================
๐ŸˆดPhotometry:
Photometry relies on measurement of light by a photodetector. The light may be:
1โƒฃabsorbed by a substance dissolved in solution (absorbance),
2โƒฃthe light may be scattered or refracted by particles suspended in solution (turbidimetry or nephelometry), or
3โƒฃthe light may be emitted from a substance that absorbs light at one wavelength and emits light at another wavelength (๏ฌ‚uorescence).
โ—Žโ—โ” @Biochem_Lab โ”โ—โ—Žโ€ข

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๐Ÿ…ฐ๏ธAbsorbance and ๏ฌ‚uorescence:
========================
1โƒฃAbsorbance: When an analyte has an intrinsic color (or generates a color upon chemical reaction), visible light is absorbed when it passes through a solution containing the analyte (or reaction products). the detector is placed in a direct line with the incident light
Compounds that have no visible color often absorb light in the ultraviolet region and this absorbance can be used in the same way as absorbance of visible light.
โ—Žโ—โ” @Biochem_Lab โ”โ—โ—Žโ€ข

2โƒฃFluorescence:
Certain kinds of chemical structures are able to absorb light of one wavelength and emit light of another wavelength. These substances are termed ๏ฌ‚uorescent compounds or ๏ฌ‚uorophores. In each case the incident light is of shorter wavelength and higher energy than the emitted light. So a substance that absorbs blue light (wavelength 400) may emit lower energy
green light (wavelength 500).
The detector is placed at a 90ยฐ angle from the incident light so that it detects only emitted light and not residual incident light which passes directly through the sample.

โ™ฆุงู„ุงู…ุชุตุงุตูŠุฉูˆุงู„ููŽู„ู’ูˆูŽุฑูŽุฉ:
ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูŠู…ุฑ ุดุนุงุน ุถูˆุฆูŠ ุฎู„ุงู„ ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ุŒ ุณูŠุชู… ุงู…ุชุตุงุต ุฌุฒุก ู…ู†ู‡ ูˆุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ุงุฎุฑ ุณูŠู†ูุฐุŒ ูˆุนู„ู‰ ุญุณุจ ุงู„ู…ุงุฏุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุงู…ุชุตุช ุงู„ุถูˆุก ูุฅู†ู‡ ุณูŠุชู… ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุฅู…ุง ุจู…ุง ูŠุนุฑู ุจุงู„ุงู…ุชุตุงุตูŠุฉ ูˆุฅู…ุง ูŠุนุฑู ุจุงู„ูู„ูˆุฑุฉ.
ูŠู…ุชุต ุงู„ูƒุชุฑูˆู† ุงู„ู…ุงุฏุฉ ุฌุฒุก ู…ู† ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุถูˆุก ุงู„ู…ุงุฑู‘ุฉ ู…ู† ุฎู„ุงู„ู‡ ( ุชูุณู…ู‰ ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุฅุซุงุฑุฉ ) ุชุนู…ู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุฅุซุงุฑุชู‡ ููŠู†ุชู‚ู„ ู…ู† ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงุฏู†ู‰ ุงู„ู‰ ู…ุณุชูˆู‰ ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงุนู„ู‰. ูˆู„ุฃู†ู‡ ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุณุชู‚ุฑู ููŠ ู…ุณุชูˆุงู‡ ุงู„ุฌุฏูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ุทุงู‚ุฉุŒ ูู„ุง ูŠู„ุจุซ ุงู† ูŠุนูˆุฏ ุงู„ู‰ ู…ุณุชูˆุงู‡ ุงู„ุณุงุจู‚ ููŠ ุฌุฒุก ู…ู† ุขู„ุงู ุงู„ุงุฌุฒุงุก ู…ู† ุงู„ุซุงู†ูŠุฉ ูุงู‚ุฏุงู‹ ู„ู„ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุงู…ุชุตู‡ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงุญุฏ ุงู„ุดูƒู„ูŠู†:
ุฅู…ุงุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ุญุฑุงุฑุฉ ููŠ ูˆุณุท ุงู„ุชูุงุนู„ุŒ ูˆู‡ู†ุง ูŠุชู… ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุจู…ุง ูŠุนุฑู ุจุงู„ุงู…ุชุตุงุตูŠุฉ.
ุงูˆ ุนู„ู‰ ุดูƒู„ ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุถูˆุฆูŠุฉ ุงุฎุฑู‰ ( ุชูุณู…ู‰ ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุฅู†ุจุนุงุซ ) ุชูƒูˆู† ุงู‚ู„ ู‚ูˆุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุชูŠ ุงู…ุชุตู‡ุงุŒ ูˆู‡ู†ุง ูŠุชู… ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุจู…ุง ูŠุนุฑู ุจุงู„ูู„ูˆุฑุฉ.
ุชูƒูˆู† ุทุงู‚ุฉ ุงู„ุงู†ุจุนุงุซ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู‚ู„ ู‚ูˆุฉ ู„ุฃู† ุงู„ุงู„ูƒุชุฑูˆู† ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ู‚ุฏ ูู‚ุฏ ุฌุฒุกู‹ ู…ู†ู‡ุง ููŠ ุฑุญู„ุฉ ุงู„ุฐู‡ุงุจ ูˆุงู„ุงูŠุงุจุŒ ูˆู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุงู‚ู„ ู‚ูˆุฉ ููŠูƒูˆู† ุทูˆู„ู‡ุง ุงู„ู…ูˆุฌูŠ ุงุทูˆู„ ูˆู„ูˆู†ู‡ุง ู…ุฎุชู„ู ุนู† ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู… ุงู…ุชุตุงุตู‡ุง.

*ูƒู„ู…ุง ูƒุงู† ุงู„ุทูˆู„ ุงู„ู…ูˆุฌูŠ ุงูƒุจุฑ ูƒู„ู…ุง ูƒุงู†ุช ุทุงู‚ุชู‡ ุงู‚ู„ ูˆุงู„ุนูƒุณ ุตุญูŠุญ.
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๐Ÿ…ฑ๏ธTurbidimetry and Nephelometry:
=========================
some tests are based on formation of insoluble particles that interfere with the passage of light through the solution. The analyte reacts with an added reagent to produce insoluble particles that remain suspended in the solution. When light hits these particles some of it is re๏ฌ‚ected in different directions.
๐Ÿ‘‰It is possible to measure the loss of light passing straight through the solution (called turbidimetry) or the increase of light re๏ฌ‚ected in a different direction (called nephelometry).

๐Ÿ‘‰In turbidimetry the detector is placed in a direct line with the incident light.

๐Ÿ‘‰In nephelometry the detector is placed at an angle to the light path to avoid detection of light passing through the sample.

๐Ÿ‘‰Turbidimetric and nephelometric methods are often chosen to measure proteins such as transferrin or prealbumin. Proteins are relatively large molecules that can be easily cross-linked by selective reagents to produce aggregate particles that are the right size to re๏ฌ‚ect light in the visible or ultraviolet range.
ููŠ ุญุงู„ุฉ ุงู„ุชุดุชูŠุช ู„ู„ุถูˆุก ูุฅู† ุงู„ุถูˆุก ุงู„ู…ุณู„ู‘ู‘ุท ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู…ุญู„ูˆู„ ุณูŠุตุทุฏู… ุจุฌุฒูŠุฆุงุช ุงู„ู…ุงุฏุฉ ููŠุชุดุชุช ุฌุฒุก ู…ู†ู‡ ูˆุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ุงุฎุฑ ูŠู†ูุฐุŒ ููŠุชู… ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุฅู…ุง ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ู†ุงูุฐ ุงูˆ ุงู„ู…ุชุดุชุช. ูุฅุฐุง ุชู… ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ู†ุงูุฐ ุชุณู…ู‰ ุงู„ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ
Turbidimetry
ูˆุงุฐุง ุชู… ู‚ูŠุงุณ ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ู…ุชุดุชุช ุชุณู…ู‰ ุงู„ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ
nephelometry

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Endpoint and Rate (kinetic) Reactions:
==============================
๐Ÿ”ฐWhen an analyte is detected using a chemical reaction, there are two options for measuring its concentration.
โœ๏ธOne is to wait until the reaction is complete and the total amount of analyte is converted to product โ€“ called an endpoint reaction.

โœ๏ธThe other is to measure the rate of change in product formed over time โ€“ called a rate reaction.

Endpoint Reactions.
๐Ÿ”ฐEndpoint reactions are especially suitable for chemical reactions which are completed in a relatively short time and produce one product molecule or complex for each molecule of analyte.
๐Ÿ‘‰For example, a reaction of albumin with the dye bromocresol purple (BCP) produces a colored complex. If the reaction is allowed to continue until all the albumin present in solution has reacted and the maximum amount of colored product has formed, the color at the end of the reaction re๏ฌ‚ects the total amount of albumin as the albumin-dye complex.

๐Ÿ”ฐEndpoint reactions can measure the creation of a product or the loss of reactant.
๐Ÿ”ฐIf the method measures the creation of a product, the absorbance is higher at the endpoint than at the start point (called an end-up reaction).
๐Ÿ”ฐIf the method measures the disappearance of a reactant, the absorbance is lower at the endpoint than at the start point (called an end-
down reaction).

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Rate (kinetic) Reactions:
===================
If the analyte is an enzyme, a molecule which can catalyze the conversion of unlimited numbers of reagent molecules (termed substrates) to product, the amount of product at the endpoint would not re๏ฌ‚ect the amount of enzyme. Instead, the endpoint would re๏ฌ‚ect the amount of substrate that was present.
For this reason, enzyme activity is determined by a rate reaction rather than an endpoint reaction. In such cases determination of the enzyme concentration is based on how fast a fxed amount of substrate is converted to
product. The more enzyme present, the faster the conversion.
Examples of enzymes that are often measured in the clinical laboratory include lipase and alanine.

Rate reactions may also be used for measurement of analytes that are not enzymes. For example, if a reaction is very slow to reach an endpoint, a rate method may be more practical in order to obtain a result in a shorter timeframe. Some examples of analytes other than enzymes that are measured using rate reaction include ammonia (a waste product of protein metabolism) and amikacin (a therapeutic drug).

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